Extremely Low Resistance Materials and Methods for Modifying or Creating Same

ABSTRACT

In some implementations of the invention, existing extremely low resistance materials (“ELR materials”) may be modified and/or new ELR materials may be created by enhancing (in the case of existing ELR materials) and/or creating (in the case of new ELR materials) an aperture within the ELR material such that the aperture is maintained at increased temperatures so as not to impede propagation of electrical charge there through. In some implementations of the invention, as long as the propagation of electrical charge through the aperture remains unimpeded, the material should remain in an ELR state; otherwise, as the propagation of electrical charge through the aperture becomes impeded, the ELR material begins to transition into a non-ELR state.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation application of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 12/896,870, entitled “Extremely Low ResistanceMaterials and Methods for Modifying or Creating Same,” filed on Oct. 2,2010, which is turn claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No.61/248,130, entitled “High Temperature Extremely Low ResistanceMaterials and Methods for Modifying or Creating Same,” filed on Oct. 2,2009, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention is generally related to materials with extremely lowresistance (“ELR”) materials, and more particularly to modifyingexisting ELR materials and/or creating new ELR materials that operatewith improved operating characteristics.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Ongoing research attempts to achieve new materials with improvedoperational characteristics, for example, reduced electrical resistanceat higher temperatures over existing materials, includingsuperconducting materials. Scientists have theorized a possibleexistence of a “perfect conductor,” or a material that operates withextremely low resistance but that may not necessarily demonstrate allthe conventionally accepted characteristics of a superconductingmaterial.

Notwithstanding their name, conventional high temperaturesuperconducting (“HTS”) materials still operate at very lowtemperatures. In fact, most commonly used HTS materials still requireuse of a cooling system that uses liquids with very low boiling points(e.g., liquid nitrogen). Such cooling systems increase implementationcosts and discourage widespread commercial and consumer use and/orapplication of such materials.

What is needed are ELR materials, including superconducting materials,with improved operating characteristics; mechanisms for modifying knownELR materials so that the modified materials operate with improvedoperating characteristics; and/or techniques for designing andfabricating new ELR materials.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The accompanying drawings, which are included to provide a furtherunderstanding of the invention and are incorporated in and constitute apart of this specification, illustrate various exemplary implementationsof the invention and together with the detailed description serve toexplain various principles and/or aspects of the invention.

FIG. 1 illustrates a crystalline structure of an exemplary ELR materialas viewed from a first perspective.

FIG. 2 illustrates a crystalline structure of an exemplary ELR materialas viewed from a second perspective.

FIG. 3 illustrates a crystalline structure of an exemplary ELR materialas viewed from a second perspective.

FIG. 4 illustrates a conceptual mechanical model of a crystallinestructure of an ELR material.

FIG. 5 illustrates a conceptual mechanical model of an improvedcrystalline structure, according to various implementations of theinvention, of an ELR material.

FIG. 6 illustrates a conceptual mechanical model of an improvedcrystalline structure, according to various implementations of theinvention, of an ELR material.

FIG. 7 illustrates a conceptual mechanical model of an improvedcrystalline structure, according to various implementations of theinvention, of an exemplary ELR material.

FIG. 8 illustrates a conceptual mechanical model of an improvedcrystalline structure, according to various implementations of theinvention, of an ELR material.

FIG. 9 illustrates a conceptual mechanical model of an improvedcrystalline structure, according to various implementations of theinvention, of an ELR material.

FIG. 10 illustrates a modified crystalline structure, according tovarious implementations of the invention, of an ELR material as viewedfrom a second perspective.

FIG. 11 illustrates a modified crystalline structure, according tovarious implementations of the invention, of an ELR material as viewedfrom a first perspective.

FIG. 12 is a flowchart for producing a modified material from an ELRmaterial according to various implementations of the invention.

FIGS. 13A-13J illustrate preparing a modified ELR material according tovarious implementations of the invention.

FIG. 14 is a flowchart for depositing a modifying material onto an ELRmaterial according to various implementations of the invention.

FIG. 15 illustrates a test bed useful for determining variousoperational characteristics of a modified ELR material according tovarious implementations of the invention.

FIGS. 16A-16G illustrate test results demonstrating various operationalcharacteristics of a modified ELR material.

FIG. 17 illustrates a crystalline structure of an exemplary ELR materialas viewed from a second perspective.

FIG. 18 illustrates a crystalline structure of an exemplary ELR materialas viewed from a second perspective.

FIG. 19 illustrates a crystalline structure of an exemplary ELR materialas viewed from a second perspective.

FIG. 20 illustrates an arrangement of an ELR material and a modifyingmaterial useful for propagating electrical charge according to variousimplementations of the invention.

FIG. 21 illustrates a single unit cell of an exemplary ELR material.

FIG. 22 illustrates a crystalline structure of an exemplary ELR materialas viewed from a second perspective.

FIG. 23 illustrates multiple layers of crystalline structures of anexemplary surface-modified ELR material according to variousimplementations of the invention.

FIG. 24 illustrates test results demonstrating various operationalcharacteristics of a modified ELR material, namely with chromium as amodifying material and YBCO as an ELR material, in accordance withvarious implementations of the invention.

FIG. 25 illustrates test results demonstrating various operationalcharacteristics of a modified ELR material, namely with vanadium as amodifying material and YBCO as an ELR material, in accordance withvarious implementations of the invention.

FIG. 26 illustrates test results demonstrating various operationalcharacteristics of a modified ELR material, namely with bismuth as amodifying material and YBCO as an ELR material, in accordance withvarious implementations of the invention.

FIG. 27 illustrates test results demonstrating various operationalcharacteristics of a modified ELR material, namely with copper as amodifying material and YBCO as an ELR material, in accordance withvarious implementations of the invention.

FIG. 28 illustrates test results demonstrating various operationalcharacteristics of a modified ELR material, namely with cobalt as amodifying material and YBCO as an ELR material, in accordance withvarious implementations of the invention.

FIG. 29 illustrates test results demonstrating various operationalcharacteristics of a modified ELR material, namely with titanium as amodifying material and YBCO as an ELR material, in accordance withvarious implementations of the invention.

FIG. 30 illustrates a crystalline structure of an exemplary ELR materialas viewed from a third perspective.

FIG. 31 illustrates a reference frame useful for describing variousimplementations of the invention.

FIG. 32 illustrates a crystalline structure of an exemplary ELR materialas viewed from a second perspective.

FIG. 33 illustrates a crystalline structure of an exemplary ELR materialas viewed from a second perspective.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Generally speaking, various implementations of the invention relate tomodifying existing ELR materials and/or forming new ELR materials byenhancing (in the case of existing ELR materials) and/or creating (inthe case of new ELR materials) an aperture within the ELR material sothat the modified or new ELR material exhibits improved operatingcharacteristics, which may include, but are not limited to, operating inan extremely low resistance state (including, for example, asuperconducting state) at higher temperatures, operating with increasedcharge carrying capacity at the same (or higher) temperatures, operatingwith improved magnetic properties, operating with improved mechanicalproperties, and/or other improved operating characteristics. As will bedescribed in further detail below, for purposes of this description, ELRmaterials comprise: superconducting materials, including HTS materials;perfectly conducting materials (e.g., perfect conductors); and otherconductive materials with extremely low resistance.

In some implementations of the invention, a composition of mattercomprises a material comprising a first plurality of atoms; and amodifying material comprising at least one second atom bonded to atleast one of the first plurality of atoms such that the compositionoperates in an ELR state at a temperature greater than that of thematerial alone or without the modifying material.

In some implementations of the invention, a composition of mattercomprises a material comprising a first plurality of atoms, at leastsome of the first plurality of atoms forming an aperture within thematerial; and a modifying material comprising at least one second atombonded to at least one of the first plurality of atoms such that thecomposition maintains the aperture so that composition operates in anELR state at a temperature greater than that of the material without themodifying material.

In some implementations of the invention, a composition of mattercomprises a material comprising a first plurality of atoms, at leastsome of the first plurality of atoms forming an aperture within thematerial; and a modifying material comprising at least one second atombonded to at least one of the first plurality of atoms such that thecomposition maintains the aperture so that the aperture operates in anELR state at a temperature greater than that of the material without themodifying material.

In some implementations of the invention, a composition of mattercomprises a material comprising a first plurality of atoms, at leastsome of the first plurality of atoms forming an aperture within thematerial, the aperture maintained at a first temperature; and amodifying material comprising at least one second atom bonded to atleast one of the first plurality of atoms such that the aperture ismaintained at a second temperature greater than the first temperature.

In some implementations of the invention, a composition of mattercomprises a material comprising a first plurality of atoms arranged in acrystalline structure, the crystalline structure having an apertureformed therein; and a modifying material comprising a plurality ofsecond atoms bonded to the crystalline structure of the material suchthat the aperture is maintained at a temperature greater than that ofthe material alone or without the modifying material.

In some implementations of the invention, a composition of mattercomprises a material comprising a plurality of atoms arranged in acrystalline structure, the atoms selected so as to form an improvedaperture within the crystalline structure such that the materialoperates in an ELR state at temperatures greater than a particulartemperature, where the particular temperature is any one of thefollowing temperatures: 200K, 210K, 220K, 230K, 240K, 250K, 260K, 270K,280K, 290K, 300K, or 310K.

In some implementations of the invention, a composition of mattercomprises a material comprising a plurality of atoms arranged in acrystalline structure, the atoms selected so as to form an improvedaperture within the crystalline structure such that the materialoperates in a superconducting state at temperatures greater than aparticular temperature, where the particular temperature is any one ofthe following temperatures: 200K, 210K, 220K, 230K, 240K, 250K, 260K,270K, 280K, 290K, 300K, or 310K.

In some implementations of the invention, a composition of mattercomprises a material comprising a plurality of atoms arranged in acrystalline structure, the crystalline structure having an apertureformed therein, the aperture remaining sufficiently open at temperaturesgreater than a particular temperature, where the particular temperatureis any one of the following temperatures: 200K, 210K, 220K, 230K, 240K,250K, 260K, 270K, 280K, 290K, 300K, or 310K. In further implementationsof the invention, the composition operates in an ELR state attemperatures greater than the particular temperature.

In some implementations of the invention, a composition of mattercomprises a material comprising a plurality of atoms arranged in acrystalline structure, the crystalline structure having an apertureformed therein, the aperture remaining unobstructed at temperaturesgreater than a particular temperature, where the particular temperatureis any one of the following temperatures: 200K, 210K, 220K, 230K, 240K,250K, 260K, 270K, 280K, 290K, 300K, or 310K. In further implementationsof the invention, the composition operates in an ELR state attemperatures greater than the particular temperature.

In some implementations of the invention, a composition of mattercomprises a material comprising a plurality of atoms arranged in acrystalline structure, the crystalline structure having an apertureformed therein, the aperture maintained sufficiently to transportelectrical charge at temperatures greater than a particular temperature,where the particular temperature is any one of the followingtemperatures: 200K, 210K, 220K, 230K, 240K, 250K, 260K, 270K, 280K,290K, 300K, or 310K. In further implementations of the invention, thecomposition operates in an ELR state at temperatures greater than theparticular temperature.

In some implementations of the invention, a composition of mattercomprises a material comprising a plurality of atoms arranged in acrystalline structure, the crystalline structure having an apertureformed therein, the aperture maintained sufficiently to facilitatetransport of electrical charge at temperatures greater than a particulartemperature, where the particular temperature is any one of thefollowing temperatures: 200K, 210K, 220K, 230K, 240K, 250K, 260K, 270K,280K, 290K, 300K, or 310K. In further implementations of the invention,the composition operates in an ELR state at temperatures greater thanthe particular temperature.

In some implementations of the invention, a composition of mattercomprises a material comprising a plurality of atoms arranged in acrystalline structure, the crystalline structure having an apertureformed therein, the aperture maintained sufficiently to propagatecurrent carriers at temperatures greater than a particular temperature,where the particular temperature is any one of the followingtemperatures: 200K, 210K, 220K, 230K, 240K, 250K, 260K, 270K, 280K,290K, 300K, or 310K. In further implementations of the invention, thecomposition operates in an ELR state at temperatures greater than theparticular temperature.

In some implementations of the invention, a method comprises maintainingan aperture formed within a crystalline structure of an HTS material attemperatures greater than a particular temperature, where the particulartemperature is any one of the following temperatures: 200K, 210K, 220K,230K, 240K, 250K, 260K, 270K, 280K, 290K, 300K, or 310K. In furtherimplementations of the invention, the HTS material operates in asuperconducting state at temperatures greater than the particulartemperature.

In some implementations of the invention, a method comprises maintainingan aperture formed within a crystalline structure of an ELR material attemperatures greater than a particular temperature, where the particulartemperature is any one of the following temperatures: 200K, 210K, 220K,230K, 240K, 250K, 260K, 270K, 280K, 290K, 300K, or 310K. In furtherimplementations of the invention, the ELR material operates in an ELRstate at temperatures greater than the particular temperature.

In some implementations of the invention, a method comprises forming anaperture within a material, the aperture remaining sufficiently open attemperatures greater than a particular temperature, where the particulartemperature is any one of the following temperatures: 200K, 210K, 220K,230K, 240K, 250K, 260K, 270K, 280K, 290K, 300K, or 310K. In furtherimplementations of the invention, the material operates in an ELR stateat temperatures greater than the particular temperature.

In some implementations of the invention, a method comprises forming anaperture within a material, the aperture facilitating transport ofelectrical charge at temperatures greater than a particular temperature,where the particular temperature is any one of the followingtemperatures: 200K, 210K, 220K, 230K, 240K, 250K, 260K, 270K, 280K,290K, 300K, or 310K. In further implementations of the invention, thematerial operates in an ELR state at temperatures greater than theparticular temperature.

In some implementations of the invention, a method comprises forming anaperture within a material, the aperture transporting electrical chargeat temperatures greater than a particular temperature, where theparticular temperature is any one of the following temperatures: 200K,210K, 220K, 230K, 240K, 250K, 260K, 270K, 280K, 290K, 300K, or 310K. Infurther implementations of the invention, the material operates in anELR state at temperatures greater than the particular temperature.

In some implementations of the invention, a method comprises forming anaperture within a material, the aperture propagating current carriers attemperatures greater than a particular temperature, where the particulartemperature is any one of the following temperatures: 200K, 210K, 220K,230K, 240K, 250K, 260K, 270K, 280K, 290K, 300K, or 310K. In furtherimplementations of the invention, the material operates in an ELR stateat temperatures greater than the particular temperature.

In some implementations of the invention, a method comprises arrangingatoms of a material so as to form an aperture within the material, theaperture remaining sufficiently open at temperatures greater than aparticular temperature, where the particular temperature is any one ofthe following temperatures: 200K, 210K, 220K, 230K, 240K, 250K, 260K,270K, 280K, 290K, 300K, or 310K. In further implementations of theinvention, the material operates in an ELR state at temperatures greaterthan the particular temperature.

In some implementations of the invention, a method comprises arrangingatoms of a material so as to form an aperture within the material, theaperture facilitating transport of electrical charge at temperaturesgreater than a particular temperature, where the particular temperatureis any one of the following temperatures: 200K, 210K, 220K, 230K, 240K,250K, 260K, 270K, 280K, 290K, 300K, or 310K. In further implementationsof the invention, the material operates in an ELR state at temperaturesgreater than the particular temperature.

In some implementations of the invention, a method comprises arrangingatoms of a material so as to form an aperture within the material, theaperture transporting electrical charge at temperatures greater than aparticular temperature, where the particular temperature is any one ofthe following temperatures: 200K, 210K, 220K, 230K, 240K, 250K, 260K,270K, 280K, 290K, 300K, or 310K. In further implementations of theinvention, the material operates in an ELR state at temperatures greaterthan the particular temperature.

In some implementations of the invention, a method comprises arrangingatoms of a material so as to form an aperture within the material, theaperture propagating current carriers at temperatures greater than aparticular temperature, where the particular temperature is any one ofthe following temperatures: 200K, 210K, 220K, 230K, 240K, 250K, 260K,270K, 280K, 290K, 300K, or 310K. In further implementations of theinvention, the material operates in an ELR state at temperatures greaterthan the particular temperature.

In some implementations of the invention, a method comprises selectingan element based on one or more atomic characteristics of an atom of theelement in relation to at least one atom of an other element; andforming an aperture in a material, the aperture having a perimeterincluding at least one atom of the selected element, the materialincluding the at least one atom of the other element, wherein theaperture transports electrical charge in an ELR state. In someimplementations of the invention, forming an aperture in a materialcomprises forming an aperture in a material, the aperture having theperimeter further including at least one atom of the other element.

In some implementations of the invention, a method comprises selectingan element based on one or more atomic characteristics of an atom of theelement in relation to at least one atom of an other element; andforming an aperture in a material, the aperture having a perimeterincluding at least one atom of the selected element, the materialincluding the at least one atom of the other element, wherein theaperture facilitates transport of electrical charge in an ELR state. Insome implementations of the invention, forming an aperture in a materialcomprises forming an aperture in a material, the aperture having theperimeter further including at least one atom of the other element.

In some implementations of the invention, a method comprises selectingan element based on one or more atomic characteristics of an atom of theelement in relation to at least one atom of an other element; andforming an aperture in a material, the aperture having a perimeterincluding at least one atom of the selected element, the materialincluding the at least one atom of the other element, wherein theaperture propagates current carriers in an ELR state. In someimplementations of the invention, forming an aperture in a materialcomprises forming an aperture in a material, the aperture having theperimeter further including at least one atom of the other element.

In some implementations of the invention, a method comprises depositinga modifying material onto an ELR material, the modifying materialmaintaining an aperture formed in the ELR material at temperaturesgreater than that of the ELR material alone.

In some implementations of the invention, a method comprises depositingan ELR material onto a modifying material, the modifying materialmaintaining an aperture formed in the ELR material at temperaturesgreater than that of the ELR material alone or without the modifyingmaterial.

In some implementations of the invention, a method comprises depositinga modifying material onto a superconducting material, the modifyingmaterial maintaining an aperture formed in the superconducting materialat temperatures greater than that of the superconducting material aloneor without the modifying material.

In some implementations of the invention, a method comprises depositinga superconducting material onto a modifying material, the modifyingmaterial maintaining an aperture formed in the superconducting materialat temperatures greater than that of the superconducting material aloneor without the modifying material.

In some implementations of the invention, a method comprises modifying asurface of an ELR material so as to maintain an aperture formed within acrystalline structure of the ELR material such that the ELR materialremains in an ELR state at temperatures greater than a particulartemperature, where the particular temperature is any one of thefollowing temperatures: 200K, 210K, 220K, 230K, 240K, 250K, 260K, 270K,280K, 290K, 300K, or 310K.

In some implementations of the invention, a method comprises modifying asurface of a superconducting material so as to maintain an apertureformed within a crystalline structure of the superconducting materialsuch that the superconducting material remains in a superconductingstate at temperatures greater than a particular temperature, where theparticular temperature is any one of the following temperatures: 200K,210K, 220K, 230K, 240K, 250K, 260K, 270K, 280K, 290K, 300K, or 310K.

In some implementations of the invention, a method comprises bonding amodifying material to an ELR material, the bonded modifying materialmaintaining an aperture formed in the ELR material at temperaturesgreater than that of the ELR material alone or without the modifyingmaterial.

In some implementations of the invention, a method comprises bonding amodifying material to a superconducting material, the bonded modifyingmaterial maintaining an aperture formed in the superconducting materialat temperatures greater than that of the superconducting material aloneor without the modifying material.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Various features, advantages, and implementations of the invention maybe set forth or be apparent from consideration of the following detaileddescription, the drawings, and the claims. It is to be understood thatthe detailed description and the drawings are exemplary and intended toprovide further explanation without limiting the scope of the inventionexcept as set forth in the claims.

Various implementations of the invention are related to ELR materials,and more particularly to modifying existing ELR materials and/orcreating new ELR materials that operate with improved operatingcharacteristics. The novel ELR materials can encompass, for example,compositions, products, processes of manufacture, product-by-process,methods of making novel ELR materials, for example, to obtain a newtechnical effect.

For purposes of this description, extremely low resistance (“ELR”)materials may include: superconducting materials, including, but notlimited to, HTS materials; perfectly conducting materials (e.g., perfectconductors); and other conductive materials with extremely lowresistance. Further, for purposes of this description, operatingcharacteristics with regard to ELR materials and/or variousimplementations of the invention may include, but are not limited to, aresistance of the ELR material in its ELR state (for example, withregard to superconductors, a superconducting state), a transitiontemperature of the ELR material to its ELR state, a charge propagatingcapacity of the ELR material in its ELR state, one or more magneticproperties of the ELR material, one or more mechanical properties of theELR material, and/or other operating characteristics of the ELRmaterial. Further, for purposes of this description, “extremely lowresistance” is resistance similar in magnitude to the flux flowresistance of Type II superconducting materials in their superconductingstate, and may generally be expressed in terms of resistivity in a rangeof zero Ohm-cm to one fiftieth ( 1/50) of the resistivity ofsubstantially pure copper at 293K. For example, as used herein,substantially pure copper is 99.999% copper. In various implementationsof the invention, portions of modified and/or new ELR materials have aresistivity in a range of zero Ohm-cm to 3.36×10⁻⁸ Ohm-cm.

Incremental improvements in a transition temperature (sometimes alsoreferred to as a critical temperature) of ELR materials, and inparticular, superconducting materials, appear to be based on trial anderror rather than an understanding of the mechanisms by which ELRmaterials operate. Without such an understanding, further improvementsto a transition temperature (or other operating characteristic) of theknown ELR materials (or classes thereof) as well as design of new ELRmaterials are limited. As generally understood, the transitiontemperature is a temperature below which the ELR material “operates” orexhibits (or begins exhibiting) extremely low resistance, and/or otherphenomenon associated with ELR materials. When operating with extremelylow resistance, the ELR material is referred to as being in an ELRstate. At temperatures above the transition temperature, the ELRmaterial ceases to exhibit extremely low resistance and the ELR materialis referred to as being in its non-ELR state. In other words, thetransition temperature corresponds to a temperature at which the ELRmaterial changes between its non-ELR state and its ELR state. As wouldbe appreciated, for some ELR materials, the transition temperature maybe a range of temperatures over which the ELR material changes betweenits non-ELR state and its ELR state. As would also be appreciated, theELR material may have hysteresis in its transition temperature with onetransition temperature as the ELR material warms and another transitiontemperature as the ELR material cools.

FIG. 31 illustrates a reference frame 3100 which may be used to describevarious implementations of the invention. Reference frame 3100 includesa set of axes referred to as an a-axis, a b-axis, and a c-axis. Forpurposes of this description: reference to the a-axis includes thea-axis and any other axis parallel thereto; reference to the b-axisincludes the b-axis and any other axis parallel thereto; and referenceto the c-axis includes the c-axis and any other axis parallel thereto.Various pairs of the axes form a set of planes in reference frame 3100referred to as an a-plane, a b-plane, and a c-plane, where: the a-planeis formed by the b-axis and the c-axis and is perpendicular to thea-axis; the b-plane is formed by the a-axis and the c-axis and isperpendicular to the b-axis; and the c-plane is formed by the a-axis andthe b-axis and is perpendicular to the c-axis. For purposes of thisdescription: reference to the a-plane includes the a-plane and any planeparallel thereto; reference to the b-plane includes the b-plane and anyplane parallel thereto; and reference to the c-plane includes thec-plane and any plane parallel thereto. Further, with regard to various“faces” or “surfaces” of the crystalline structures described herein, aface parallel to the a-plane may sometimes be referred to as a “b-c”face; a face parallel to the b-plane may sometimes be referred to as an“a-c” face; and a face parallel to the c-plane may sometimes be referredto as a “a-b” face.

FIG. 1 illustrates a crystalline structure 100 of an exemplary ELRmaterial as viewed from a first perspective, namely, a perspectiveperpendicular to an “a-b” face of crystalline structure 100 and parallelto the c-axis thereof. FIG. 2 illustrates crystalline structure 100 asviewed from a second perspective, namely, a perspective perpendicular toa “b-c” face of crystalline structure 100 and parallel to the a-axisthereof. FIG. 22 illustrates additional depth (i.e., into the page) forcrystalline structure 100 of the exemplary ELR material. For purposes ofthis description, the exemplary ELR material illustrated in FIG. 1, FIG.2 and FIG. 22 is generally representative of various ELR materials. Insome implementations of the invention, the exemplary ELR material may bea representative of a family of superconducting materials referred to asmixed-valence copper-oxide perovskites. The mixed-valence copper-oxideperovskite materials include, but are not limited to, LaBaCuO_(x), LSCO(e.g., La_(2-x)Sr_(x)CuO₄, etc.), YBCO (e.g., YBa₂Cu₃O₇, etc.), BSCCO(e.g., Bi₂Sr₂Ca₂Cu₃O₁₀, etc.), TBCCO (e.g., Tl₂Ba₂Ca₂Cu₃O₁₀ orTl_(m)Ba₂Ca_(n-1)Cu_(n)O_(2n+m+2+δ)), HgBa₂Ca₂Cu₃O_(x), and othermixed-valence copper-oxide perovskite materials. The other mixed-valencecopper-oxide perovskite materials may include, but are not limited to,various substitutions of the cations as would be appreciated. As wouldalso be appreciated, the aforementioned named mixed-valence copper-oxideperovskite materials may refer to generic classes of materials in whichmany different formulations exist. In some implementations of theinvention, the exemplary ELR materials may include an HTS materialoutside of the family of mixed-valence copper-oxide perovskite materials(“non-perovskite materials”). Such non-perovskite materials may include,but are not limited to, iron pnictides, magnesium diboride (MgB₂), andother non-perovskites. In some implementations of the invention, theexemplary ELR materials may be other superconducting materials. Othermaterials having an aperture 210 may be exploited in accordance withvarious aspects of the invention as would be appreciated.

Many ELR materials have a structure similar to (though not necessarilyidentical to) that of crystalline structure 100 with different atoms,combinations of atoms, and/or lattice arrangements as would beappreciated. As illustrated in FIG. 2, crystalline structure 100 isdepicted with two complete unit cells of the exemplary ELR material,with one unit cell above reference line 110 and one unit cell belowreference line 110. FIG. 21 illustrates a single unit cell 2100 of theexemplary ELR material.

Generally speaking and as would be appreciated, a unit cell 2100 of theexemplary ELR material includes six “faces”: two “a-b” faces that areparallel to the c-plane; two “a-c” faces that are parallel to theb-plane; and two “b-c” faces that are parallel to the a-plane (see,e.g., FIG. 31). As would also be appreciated, a “surface” of ELRmaterial in the macro sense may be comprised of multiple unit cells 2100(e.g., hundreds, thousands or more). Reference in this description to a“surface” or “face” of the ELR material being parallel to a particularplane (e.g., the a-plane, the b-plane or the c-plane) indicates that thesurface is formed predominately (i.e., a vast majority) of faces of unitcell 2100 that are substantially parallel to the particular plane.Furthermore, reference in this description to a “surface” or “face” ofthe ELR material being parallel to planes other than the a-plane, theb-plane, or the c-plane (e.g., an ab-plane as described below, etc.)indicates that the surface is formed from some mixture of faces of unitcell 2100 that, in the aggregate macro sense, form a surfacesubstantially parallel to such other planes.

Studies indicate that some ELR materials demonstrate an anisotropic(i.e., directional) dependence of the resistance phenomenon. In otherwords, resistance at a given temperature and current density dependsupon a direction in relation to crystalline structure 100. For example,in their ELR state, some ELR materials can carry significantly morecurrent, at zero resistance, in the direction of the a-axis and/or inthe direction of the b-axis than such materials do in the direction ofthe c-axis. As would be appreciated, various ELR materials exhibitanisotropy in various performance phenomenon, including the resistancephenomenon, in directions other than, in addition to, or as combinationsof those described above. For purposes of this description, reference toa material that tends to exhibit the resistance phenomenon (and similarlanguage) in a first direction indicates that the material supports suchphenomenon in the first direction; and reference to a material thattends not to exhibit the resistance phenomenon (and similar language) ina second direction indicates that the material does not support suchphenomenon in the second direction or does so in a reduced manner fromother directions.

Conventional understanding of known ELR materials has thus far failed toappreciate an aperture 210 formed within crystalline structure 100 by aplurality of aperture atoms 250 as being responsible for the resistancephenomenon. (See e.g., FIG. 21, where aperture 210 is not readilyapparent in a depiction of single unit cell 2100.) As will be furtherdescribed below, aperture 210 exists in many known ELR materials. Insome sense, aperture atoms 250 may be viewed as forming a discreteatomic “boundary” or “perimeter” around aperture 210. In someimplementations of the invention and as illustrated in FIG. 2, aperture210 appears between a first portion 220 and a second portion 230 ofcrystalline structure 100 although in some implementations of theinvention, aperture 210 may appear in other portions of various othercrystalline structures. While aperture 210, aperture 310, and otherapertures are illustrated in FIG. 2, FIG. 3, and elsewhere in thedrawings based on depictions of atoms as simple “spheres,” it would beappreciated that such apertures are related to and shaped by, amongother things, electrons and their associated electron densities (nototherwise illustrated) of various atoms in crystalline structure 100,including aperture atoms 250.

According to various aspects of the invention, aperture 210 facilitatespropagation of electrical charge through crystalline structure 100 andwhen aperture 210 facilitates propagation of electrical charge throughcrystalline structure 100, ELR material operates in its ELR state. Forpurposes of this description, “propagates,” “propagating,” and/or“facilitating propagation” (along with their respective forms) generallyrefer to “conducts,” “conducting” and/or “facilitating conduction” andtheir respective forms; “transports,” “transporting” and/or“facilitating transport” and their respective forms; “guides,” “guiding”and/or “facilitating guidance” and their respective forms; and/or“carry,” “carrying” and/or “facilitating carrying” and their respectiveforms. For purposes of this description, electrical charge may includepositive charge or negative charge, and/or pairs or other groupings ofsuch charges. For purposes of this description, current carriers mayinclude, but are not limited to, electrons. In some implementations ofthe invention, aperture 210 propagates negative charges throughcrystalline structure 100. In some implementations of the invention,aperture 210 propagates positive charges through crystalline structure100. In some implementations of the invention, aperture 210 propagatespairs or other groupings of electrical charge through crystallinestructure 100. In some implementations of the invention, aperture 210propagates current carriers through crystalline structure 100. In someimplementations of the invention, aperture 210 propagates pairs or othergroupings of current carriers through crystalline structure 100. In someimplementations of the invention, aperture 210 propagates electricalcharge in the form of one or more particles through crystallinestructure 100. In some implementations of the invention, aperture 210propagates electrons, pairs of electrons, and/or groupings of electronsin the form of one or more particles through crystalline structure 100.In some implementations of the invention, aperture 210 propagateselectrical charge in the form of one or more waves or wave packetsthrough crystalline structure 100. In some implementations of theinvention, aperture 210 propagates electrons, pairs of electrons, and/orgroupings of electrons in the form of one or more waves or wave packetsthrough crystalline structure 100.

In some implementations of the invention, propagation of electricalcharge through crystalline structure 100 may be in a manner analogous tothat of a waveguide. In some implementations of the invention, aperture210 may be a waveguide with regard to propagating electrical chargethrough crystalline structure 100. Waveguides and their operation aregenerally well understood. In particular, walls surrounding an interiorof the waveguide may correspond to the boundary or perimeter of apertureatoms 250 around aperture 210. One aspect relevant to an operation of awaveguide is its cross-section. Typically, the cross-section of awaveguide is related to a wavelength of the signals capable ofpropagating through the waveguide. Accordingly, the wavelength of theelectrical charge propagating through aperture 210 may be related to thecross-section of aperture 210. At the atomic level, aperture 210 and/orits cross-section may change substantially with changes in temperatureof the ELR material. For example, in some implementations of theinvention, changes in temperature of the ELR material may cause changesin aperture 210 and its operating characteristics, which in turn maycause the ELR material to transition between its ELR state to itsnon-ELR state. In some implementations of the invention, as temperatureof the ELR material increases, aperture 210 may restrict or impedepropagation of electrical charge through crystalline structure 100 andthe corresponding ELR material may transition from its ELR state to itsnon-ELR state. In some implementations of the invention, as temperatureof the ELR material increases, the cross-section of aperture 210 maychange, thereby inhibiting operation of aperture 210 in a manneranalogous to a waveguide and the corresponding ELR material maytransition from its ELR state to its non-ELR state. Likewise astemperature of the ELR material decreases, in some implementations ofthe invention, aperture 210 may facilitate (as opposed to restrict orimpede) propagation of electrical charge through crystalline structure100 and the corresponding ELR material may transition from its non-ELRstate to its ELR state. In some implementations of the invention, thecross-section of aperture 210 may change, thereby facilitating operationof aperture 210 as a waveguide (or in a manner analogous thereto) andthe corresponding ELR material may transition from its non-ELR state toits ELR state.

According to various implementations of the invention, as long asaperture 210 is “maintained” within a given ELR material, the ELRmaterial should operate in an ELR state. In various implementations ofthe invention, as long as aperture 210 is maintained within a given ELRmaterial, aperture 210 should operate in an ELR state. In variousimplementations of the invention, maintaining aperture 210 may include:maintaining aperture 210 in an ELR state; maintaining an ability ofaperture 210 to propagate electrical charge through crystallinestructure 100 in an ELR state; maintaining aperture atoms 250 relativeto one another so that ELR material operates in an ELR state;maintaining aperture atoms 250 with respect to other atoms withincrystalline structure 100 so that the ELR material operates in an ELRstate; maintaining a cross-section of aperture 210 sufficient topropagate electrical charge there through so that the ELR materialremains in an ELR state; maintaining a cross-section of aperture 210such that it does not impede, restrict, or otherwise interfere with thepropagation of electrical charge so that the ELR material remains in anELR state; maintaining a cross-section of aperture 210 sufficient topropagate current carriers there through so that ELR material remains inan ELR state; maintaining a cross-section of aperture 210 such that itdoes not interfere with current carriers so that the ELR materialremains in an ELR state; maintaining aperture 210 substantially freefrom obstruction so that the ELR material remains in an ELR state;maintaining aperture 210 so that ELR material operates with improvedoperating characteristics; enhancing aperture 210 so that the ELRmaterial operates in an ELR state with improved operatingcharacteristics; enhancing aperture 210 so that the enhanced apertureoperates in an ELR state with improved operating characteristics; and/orother ways of maintaining aperture 210 such that ELR material operatesin an ELR state. According to various implementations of the invention,maintaining aperture 210 within existing ELR materials may improve theoperating characteristics of these existing ELR materials. According tovarious implementations of the invention, maintaining an aperture 210within new materials may result in new ELR materials, some of which mayhave improved operating characteristics over existing ELR materials.According to various implementations of the invention, as long asaperture 210 is maintained within a given ELR material as temperatureincreases, the ELR material should operate in an ELR state. According tovarious implementations of the invention, as long as aperture 210 ismaintained so as to propagate electrical charge through crystallinestructure 100, the ELR material should operate in an ELR state.According to various implementations of the invention, as long asaperture 210 is maintained so as to propagate current carriers throughcrystalline structure 100, the ELR material should operate in an ELRstate. According to various implementations of the invention, as long asaperture atoms 250 are maintained relative to one another within a givenELR material, the ELR material should operate in an ELR state. Accordingto various implementations of the invention, as long as aperture atoms250 are maintained relative to other atoms within crystalline structure100 within a given ELR material, the ELR material should operate in anELR state. According to various implementations of the invention, aslong as a cross-section of aperture 210 is maintained sufficient topropagate electrical charge through aperture 210 within a given ELRmaterial, the ELR material should operate in an ELR state. According tovarious implementations of the invention, as long as a cross-section ofaperture 210 is maintained sufficient to propagate current carriersthrough aperture 210 within a given ELR material, the ELR materialshould operate in an ELR state. According to various implementations ofthe invention, as long as a cross-section of aperture 210 is maintainedsuch that electrical charge receives little or no interference throughaperture 210, the ELR material should operate in an ELR state. Accordingto various implementations of the invention, as long as a cross-sectionof aperture 210 is maintained such that current carriers receive littleor no interference through aperture 210, the ELR material should operatein an ELR state. According to various implementations of the invention,as long as a cross-section of aperture 210 is maintained substantiallyfree from obstruction within a given ELR material, the ELR materialshould operate in an ELR state.

According to various implementations of the invention, aperture 210 maybe maintained, and/or designed to be maintained, such that aperture 210propagates electrical charge there through with little or nointerference. In some implementations of the invention, electricalcharge propagating through aperture 210 collides elastically with theboundary or “walls” of aperture 210 similar to the way reflection occursin an optical waveguide. More particularly, electrical chargepropagating through aperture 210 collides elastically with variousaperture atoms 250 that comprise the boundary or walls of aperture 210.As long as such collisions are elastic, the electrical charge willexperience minimal loss (i.e., “resistance”) as it propagates throughaperture 210.

Apertures, such as, but not limited to, aperture 210 in FIG. 2, exist invarious ELR materials, such as, but not limited to, various ELRmaterials illustrated in FIG. 3, FIG. 17, FIG. 18, FIG. 19, FIG. 32,FIG. 33, etc., and described below. As illustrated, such apertures areintrinsic to the crystalline structure of some or all ELR materials.Various forms, shapes, sizes, and numbers of apertures 210 exist in ELRmaterials depending on the precise configuration of the crystallinestructure, composition of atoms, and arrangement of atoms within thecrystalline structure of the ELR material as would be appreciated inlight of this description.

The presence and absence of apertures 210 that extend in the directionof various axes through the crystalline structures 100 of various ELRmaterials is consistent with the anisotropic dependence demonstrated bysuch ELR materials. For example, as will be discussed in further detailbelow, various ELR materials illustrated in FIG. 3, FIG. 17, FIG. 18,FIG. 19, FIG. 32, FIG. 33, etc., have apertures that extend in thedirections in which these materials demonstrate the resistancephenomenon; similarly, these ELR materials tend not to have aperturesthat extend in the directions in which these materials do notdemonstrate the resistance phenomenon. For example, YBCO-123 exhibitsthe resistance phenomenon in the direction of the a-axis and the b-axis,but tends not to exhibit the resistance phenomenon in the direction ofthe c-axis. ELR material 360 which is illustrated in FIG. 3, FIG. 11,and FIG. 30 corresponds to YBCO-123. Consistent with the anisotropicdependence of the resistance phenomenon demonstrated by YBCO-123, FIG. 3illustrates that apertures 310 extend through crystalline structure 300in the direction of the a-axis; FIG. 30 illustrates that apertures 310and apertures 3010 extend through crystalline structure 300 in thedirection of the b-axis; and FIG. 11 illustrates that no suitableapertures extend through crystalline structure 300 in the direction ofthe c-axis.

Aperture 210 and/or its cross-section may be dependent upon variousatomic characteristics of aperture atoms 250. Such atomiccharacteristics include, but are not limited to, atomic size, atomicweight, numbers of electrons, number of bonds, bond lengths, bondstrengths, bond angles between aperture atoms, bond angles betweenaperture atoms and non-aperture atoms, and/or isotope number. Apertureatoms 250 may be selected based on their corresponding atomiccharacteristic to optimize aperture 210 in terms of its size, shape,rigidity, and modes of vibration (in terms of amplitude, frequency, anddirection) in relation to crystalline structure and/or atoms therein.

In some implementations of the invention, at least some of apertureatoms 250 include atoms having high electro-negativity, for example, butnot limited to, oxygen. In some implementations of the invention, atleast some of aperture atoms 250 include atoms of an element understoodas having some degree of conductivity in their bulk form. In someimplementations of the invention, some of aperture atoms 250 includeatoms having high electro-negativity and some others of aperture atoms250 include atoms of an element understood as having some degree ofconductivity. In some implementations of the invention, aperture atoms250 may provide a source of electrical charge (e.g., electrons, etc.)that propagates through aperture 210. In some implementations of theinvention, aperture atoms 250 may provide a readily available source ofelectrical charge for flow of such electrical charge to occur throughaperture 210.

Aperture 210 and/or its cross-section may be dependent upon variousatomic characteristics of “non-aperture atoms” (i.e., atoms incrystalline structure 100 other than aperture atoms 250). Such atomiccharacteristics include, but are not limited to, atomic size, atomicweight, numbers of electrons, electronic structure, number of bonds,types of bonds, differing bonds, multiple bonds, bond lengths, bondstrengths, and/or isotope number. The non-aperture atoms may also beselected based on their corresponding atomic characteristics to optimizeaperture 210 in terms of its size, shape, rigidity, and their modes ofvibration (in terms of amplitude, frequency, and direction) in relationto crystalline structure and/or atoms therein. In some implementationsof the invention, non-aperture atoms may provide a source of electricalcharge (e.g., electrons, etc.) that propagates through aperture 210. Insome implementations of the invention, non-aperture atoms may provide areadily available source of electrical charge for flow of suchelectrical charge to occur through aperture 210.

In some implementations of the invention, aperture 210 may be dependentupon various atomic characteristics of non-aperture atoms in relation toaperture atoms 250. In some implementations of the invention, aperture210 may be dependent upon various atomic characteristics of apertureatoms 250 in relation to non-aperture atoms. In some implementations ofthe invention, aperture 210 may be dependent upon various atomiccharacteristics of aperture atoms 250 in relation to other apertureatoms 250. In some implementations of the invention, aperture 210 may bedependent upon various atomic characteristics of non-aperture atoms inrelation to other non-aperture atoms.

According to various implementations of the invention, changes toaperture 210 within crystalline structure 110 may have an impact on theresistance phenomenon. According to various implementations of theinvention, changes to the cross-section of aperture 210 may have animpact on the resistance phenomenon. According to variousimplementations of the invention, changes to obstructions withinaperture 210, including changes to a size of the obstruction, a numberof the obstructions, or a frequency or probability with which suchobstructions appear, may have an impact on the resistance phenomenon. Insome implementations of the invention, such obstructions may bedependent upon various atomic characteristics of aperture atoms 250. Insome implementations of the invention, such obstructions may bedependent upon various atomic characteristics of non-aperture atoms.Atomic characteristics include, but are not limited to, atomic size,atomic weight, numbers of electrons, electronic structure, number ofbonds, types of bonds, differing bonds, multiple bonds, bond lengths,bond strengths, and/or isotope number.

According to various implementations of the invention, changes in aphysical structure of aperture 210, including changes to a shape and/orsize of its cross-section, may have an impact on the resistancephenomenon. According to various implementations of the invention,changes in an electronic structure of aperture 210 may have an impact onthe resistance phenomenon. According to various implementations of theinvention, changes in crystalline structure 100 that affect apertureatoms 250 may have an impact on the resistance phenomenon. Changesaffecting aperture atoms 250 may include, but are not limited to: 1)displacement of a nucleus of an aperture atom relative to other apertureatoms; 2) displacement of a nucleus of a non-aperture atom relative toaperture atoms; 3) changing possible energy states of aperture and/ornon-aperture atoms; and 4) changing occupancy of such possible energystates. Any of such changes or combinations of such changes may affectaperture 210. For example, as temperature of crystalline structure 100increases, the cross-section of aperture 210 may be changed due tovibration of various atoms within crystalline structure 100 as well aschanges in energy states, or occupancy thereof, of the atoms incrystalline structure 100. Physical flexure, tension or compression ofcrystalline structure 100 may also affect the positions of various atomswithin crystalline structure 100 and therefore the cross-section ofaperture 210. Magnetic fields imposed on crystalline structure 100 mayalso affect the positions of various atoms within crystalline structure100 and therefore the cross-section of aperture 210.

Phonons correspond to various modes of vibration within crystallinestructure 100. Phonons in crystalline structure 100 may interact withelectrical charge propagated through crystalline structure 100. Moreparticularly, phonons in crystalline structure 100 may cause atoms incrystalline structure 100 (e.g., aperture atoms 250, non-aperture atoms,etc.) to interact with electrical charge propagated through crystallinestructure 100. Higher temperatures result in higher phonon amplitude andmay result in increased interaction among phonons, atoms in crystallinestructure 100, and such electrical charge. Various implementations ofthe invention may minimize, reduce, or otherwise modify such interactionamong phonons, atoms in crystalline structure 100, and such electricalcharge within crystalline structure 100.

In some implementations of the invention, modifications to crystallinestructure 100 of an existing ELR material may be made to maintainaperture 210 within crystalline structure 100 thereby permitting theexisting ELR material to operate with improved operatingcharacteristics. In some implementations of the invention, modificationsto crystalline structure 100 of an existing ELR material may be made tomaintain aperture 210 within crystalline structure 100 at highertemperatures thereby permitting the existing ELR material to operatewith improved operating characteristics. In some implementations of theinvention, modifications to crystalline structure 100 of the existingELR material may be made to maintain aperture 210 within crystallinestructure 100 at higher temperatures thereby permitting the existing ELRmaterial to remain in an ELR state at higher temperatures and/or withincreased current capacity and/or with other improved operationalcharacteristics. In some implementations of the invention, new ELRmaterials may be designed with crystalline structures that form andmaintain aperture 210 at higher temperatures and/or with increasedcurrent capacity and/or with other improved operational characteristics.Various mechanisms may be used to modify crystalline structure 100 inorder to maintain aperture 210.

In some implementations of the invention, aperture 210 is maintained attemperatures at, about, or above that of liquid nitrogen. In someimplementations of the invention, aperture 210 is maintained attemperatures at, about, or above that of solid carbon dioxide. In someimplementations of the invention, aperture 210 is maintained attemperatures at, about, or above that of liquid ammonia. In someimplementations of the invention, aperture 210 is maintained attemperatures at, about, or above that of various formulations of liquidFreon. In some implementations of the invention, aperture 210 ismaintained at temperatures at, about, or above that of frozen water. Insome implementations of the invention, aperture 210 is maintained attemperatures at, about, or above that of room temperature (e.g., 21°C.).

Accordingly, various new ELR materials may be created, either asmodifications of existing ELR materials or design and formation of newELR materials. In some implementations of the invention, an ELR materialoperates in an ELR state at temperatures at, about, or above that ofliquid nitrogen. In some implementations of the invention, an ELRmaterial operates in an ELR state at temperatures at, about, or abovethat of solid carbon dioxide. In some implementations of the invention,an ELR material operates in an ELR state at temperatures at, about, orabove that of liquid ammonia. In some implementations of the invention,an ELR material operates in an ELR state temperatures at, about, orabove that of various formulations of liquid Freon. In someimplementations of the invention, an ELR material operates in an ELRstate at temperatures at, about, or above that of frozen water. In someimplementations of the invention, an ELR material operates in an ELRstate at temperatures at, about, or above that of room temperature(e.g., 21° C.). In some implementations of the invention, portions ofthe ELR material operates in the ELR state at, about, or above any oneor more of these temperatures.

FIG. 3 illustrates a crystalline structure 300 of an exemplary ELRmaterial 360 from a second perspective. Exemplary ELR material 360 is asuperconducting material commonly referred to as “YBCO” which, incertain formulations, has a transition temperature of approximately 90K.In particular, exemplary ELR material 360 depicted in FIG. 3 isYBCO-123. Crystalline structure 300 of exemplary ELR material 360includes various atoms of yttrium (“Y”), barium (“Ba”), copper (“Cu”)and oxygen (“O”). As illustrated in FIG. 3, an aperture 310 is formedwithin crystalline structure 300 by aperture atoms 350, namely atoms ofyttrium, copper, and oxygen. A cross-sectional distance between theyttrium aperture atoms in aperture 310 is approximately 0.389 nm, across-sectional distance between the oxygen aperture atoms in aperture310 is approximately 0.285 nm, and a cross-sectional distance betweenthe copper aperture atoms in aperture 310 is approximately 0.339 nm.

FIG. 30 illustrates crystalline structure 300 of exemplary ELR material360 from a third perspective. Similar to that described above withregard to FIG. 3, exemplary ELR material 360 is YBCO-123, and aperture310 is formed within crystalline structure 300 by aperture atoms 350,namely atoms of yttrium, copper, and oxygen. In this orientation, across-sectional distance between the yttrium aperture atoms in aperture310 is approximately 0.382 nm, a cross-sectional distance between theoxygen aperture atoms in aperture 310 is approximately 0.288 nm, and across-sectional distance between the copper aperture atoms in aperture310 is approximately 0.339 nm. In this orientation, in addition toaperture 310, crystalline structure 300 of exemplary ELR material 360includes an aperture 3010. Aperture 3010 occurs in the direction of theb-axis of crystalline structure 300. More particularly, aperture 3010occurs between individual unit cells of exemplary ELR material 360 incrystalline structure 300. Aperture 3010 is formed within crystallinestructure 300 by aperture atoms 3050, namely atoms of barium, copper andoxygen. A cross-sectional distance between the barium aperture atoms3050 in aperture 3010 is approximately 0.430 nm, a cross-sectionaldistance between the oxygen aperture atoms 3050 in aperture 3010 isapproximately 0.382 nm, and a cross-sectional distance between thecopper aperture atoms 3050 in aperture 3010 is approximately 0.382 nm.In some implementations of the invention, aperture 3010 operates in amanner similar to that described herein with regard to aperture 310. Forpurposes of this description, aperture 310 in YBCO may be referred to asan “yttrium aperture,” whereas aperture 3010 in YBCO may be referred toas a “barium aperture,” based on the compositions of their respectiveaperture atoms 350, 3050.

FIG. 17 illustrates a crystalline structure 1700 of an exemplary ELRmaterial 1760 as viewed from the second perspective. Exemplary ELRmaterial 1760 is an HTS material commonly referred to as “HgBa₂CuO₄”which has a transition temperature of approximately 94K. Crystallinestructure 1700 of exemplary ELR material 1760 includes various atoms ofmercury (“Hg”), barium (“Ba”), copper (“Cu”), and oxygen (“O”). Asillustrated in FIG. 17, an aperture 1710 is formed within crystallinestructure 1700 by aperture atoms which comprise atoms of barium, copper,and oxygen.

FIG. 18 illustrates a crystalline structure 1800 of an exemplary ELRmaterial 1860 as viewed from the second perspective. Exemplary ELRmaterial 1860 is an HTS material commonly referred to as“Tl₂Ca₂Ba₂Cu₃O₁₀” which has a transition temperature of approximately128K. Crystalline structure 1800 of exemplary ELR material 1860 includesvarious atoms of thallium (“Tl”), calcium (“Ca”), barium (“Ba”), copper(“Cu”), and oxygen (“O”). As illustrated in FIG. 18, an aperture 1810 isformed within crystalline structure 1800 by aperture atoms whichcomprise atoms of calcium, barium, copper and oxygen. As alsoillustrated in FIG. 18, a secondary aperture 1820 may also be formedwithin crystalline structure 1800 by secondary aperture atoms whichcomprise atoms of calcium, copper and oxygen. Secondary apertures 1820may operate in a manner similar to that of apertures 1810.

FIG. 19 illustrates a crystalline structure 1900 of an exemplary ELRmaterial 1960 as viewed from the second perspective. Exemplary ELRmaterial 1960 is an HTS material commonly referred to as “La₂CuO₄” whichhas a transition temperature of approximately 39K. Crystalline structure1900 of exemplary ELR material 1960 includes various atoms of lanthanum(“La”), copper (“Cu”), and oxygen (“O”). As illustrated in FIG. 19, anaperture 1910 is formed within crystalline structure 1900 by apertureatoms which comprise atoms of lanthanum and oxygen.

FIG. 32 illustrates a crystalline structure 3200 of an exemplary ELRmaterial 3260 as viewed from the second perspective. Exemplary ELRmaterial 3260 is an HTS material commonly referred to as“As₂Ba_(0.34)Fe₂K_(0.66)” which has a transition temperature ofapproximately 38K. Exemplary ELR material 3260 is representative of afamily of ELR materials sometimes referred to as “iron pnictides.”Crystalline structure 3200 of exemplary ELR material 3260 includesvarious atoms of arsenic (“As”), barium (“Ba”), iron (“Fe”), andpotassium (“K”). As illustrated in FIG. 32, an aperture 3210 is formedwithin crystalline structure 3200 by aperture atoms which comprise atomsof potassium and arsenic.

FIG. 33 illustrates a crystalline structure 3300 of an exemplary ELRmaterial 3360 as viewed from the second perspective. Exemplary ELRmaterial 3360 is an HTS material commonly referred to as “Mg B₂” whichhas a transition temperature of approximately 39K. Crystalline structure3300 of exemplary ELR material 3360 includes various atoms of magnesium(“Mg”) and boron (“B”). As illustrated in FIG. 33, an aperture 3310 isformed within crystalline structure 3300 by aperture atoms whichcomprise atoms of magnesium and boron.

The foregoing exemplary ELR materials illustrated in FIG. 3, FIG. 17,FIG. 18, FIG. 19, FIG. 30, FIG. 32, and FIG. 33 each demonstrate thepresence of various apertures within such materials. Various other ELRmaterials have similar apertures. Once attributed to the resistancephenomenon, apertures and their corresponding crystalline structures maybe exploited to improve operating characteristics of existing ELRmaterials, to derive improved ELR materials from existing ELR materials,and/or to design and formulate new ELR materials.

In some implementations of the invention, apertures and theircrystalline structures may be modeled, using various computer modelingtools, to improve operating characteristics of various ELR materials.For convenience of description, ELR material 360 (and its attendantcharacteristics and structures) henceforth generally refers to variousELR materials, including, but not limited to, ELR material 1760, ELRmaterial 1860 and other ELR materials illustrated in the drawings, notjust that ELR material illustrated and described with reference to FIG.3.

FIG. 4 illustrates a conceptual mechanical model 400 of crystallinestructure 100. Conceptual model 400 includes three springs, namely, aspring S₁, a spring S_(F), and a spring S₂, and two masses, namely amass M₁ and a mass M₂. For purposes of this description, spring S₁ maybe modeled as attached to a rigid wall 410 on one side and mass M₁ onthe other. Together spring S₁ and mass M₁ may be used to model firstportion 220 of crystalline structure 100. Mass M₁ is coupled betweenspring S₁ and spring S_(F). Spring S_(F) may be used to model aperture210 of crystalline structure 100 (i.e., the forces interacting betweenfirst portion 220 and second portion 230). Spring S_(F) is coupledbetween mass M₁ and mass M₂. Mass M₂ is coupled between spring S_(F) andspring S₂. Together spring S₂ and mass M₂ may be used to model secondportion 230 of crystalline structure 100. Again, for purposes of thisdescription, spring S₂ may be modeled as attached to a rigid wall 420.Other crystalline structures may be modeled as would be apparent.

The springs in FIG. 4 represent the forces interacting between groups ofatoms within crystalline structure 100. Each of these forces may bemodeled with a spring according to well-established modeling techniques.While the springs in FIG. 4 are depicted in a single dimension, itshould be appreciated that the springs may be modeled inthree-dimensions as would be apparent; however, such three-dimensionaldepiction is not necessary for purposes of understanding the inventionor implementations thereof.

As would be appreciated, temperature and vibrations of atoms (e.g.,phonons) are related. In particular, temperature of the ELR materialincreases as vibrations of the atoms of the ELR materials increase.Amplitude and frequency of these vibrations are related to variousforces and masses present in a given ELR material. With regard tocrystalline structure 100, springs S₁, S₂, and S_(F) and masses M₁ andM₂ affect the vibrations of the mechanical model which in turn simulatethe vibrations experienced by crystalline structure 100 as temperatureincreases, which may in turn impact aperture 210.

According to various implementations of the invention, these vibrationsaffect aperture 210. According to various implementations of theinvention, at temperatures above the transition temperature, thevibrations change or otherwise affect aperture 210 such that the ELRmaterial operates in its non-ELR state (e.g., the cross-section ofaperture 210 restricts, impedes, or otherwise does not facilitate thepropagation of electrical charge through aperture 210); whereas, attemperatures below the transition temperature, the vibrations do notprevent the ELR material from operating in its ELR state (e.g., thecross-section of aperture 210 facilitates propagation of electricalcharge through aperture 210).

According to various implementations of the invention, at temperaturesabove the transition temperature, the vibrations change or otherwiseaffect aperture atoms 250 such that the ELR material transitions toand/or operates in its non-ELR state (or in other words, ceases tooperate in its ELR state). According to various implementations of theinvention, at temperatures above the transition temperature, thevibrations change or otherwise affect non-aperture atoms such that theELR material transitions to and/or operates in its non-ELR state.

According to various implementations of the invention, the crystallinestructure of various known ELR materials may be modified (therebyproducing new material derivations) such that the modified ELR materialoperates with improved operating characteristics over the known ELRmaterial. According to various implementations of the invention, thecrystalline structure of various known ELR materials may be modifiedsuch that aperture 210 is maintained at higher temperatures. Accordingto various implementations of the invention, the crystalline structureof various known ELR materials may be modified (thereby producing newELR material derivations) such that aperture 210 propagates electricalcharge at higher temperatures. According to various implementations ofthe invention, the crystalline structure of various new and previouslyunknown ELR materials may be designed and fabricated such that the newELR materials operate with improved operating characteristics overexisting ELR materials. According to various implementations of theinvention, the crystalline structure of various new and previouslyunknown ELR materials may be designed and fabricated such that aperture210 is maintained at higher temperatures. According to variousimplementations of the invention, the crystalline structure of variousnew and previously unknown ELR materials may be designed and fabricatedsuch that aperture 210 propagates electrical charge at highertemperatures.

According to various implementations of the invention, apertures 210 incrystalline structure 100 have a cross-section of sufficient size topropagate electric charge through crystalline structure 100 so that ELRmaterial 360 operates in an ELR state. In some implementations of theinvention, those apertures 210 in crystalline structure 100 having across-section ranging in size from 0.20 nm to 1.00 nm may propagateelectric charge through crystalline structure 100 so that ELR material360 operates in an ELR state. According to various implementations ofthe invention, apertures 210 in crystalline structure 100 have across-section of sufficient size to propagate electric charge throughcrystalline structure 100 so that aperture 210 operates in an ELR state.In some implementations, those apertures 210 in crystalline structure100 having a cross-section ranging in size from 0.20 nm to 1.00 nm maypropagate electric charge through crystalline structure 100 so thataperture 210 operates in an ELR state.

In some implementations of the invention, improving and designing an ELRmaterial that operates with improved operating characteristics mayinvolve analyzing mechanical aspects (e.g., forces, distances, masses,modes of vibration, etc.) of aperture 210 and crystalline structure 100so that aperture 210 is maintained sufficiently to remain in an ELRstate at higher temperatures. In some implementations of the invention,improving and designing ELR materials that operate with improvedoperating characteristics may involve analyzing electronic aspects(e.g., attractive and repulsive atomic forces, conductivity,electro-negativity, etc.) of atoms in crystalline structure 100(including, but not limited to aperture atoms 250) so that aperture 210is maintained sufficiently to remain in an ELR state at highertemperatures. In some implementations of the invention, improving anddesigning ELR materials that operate with improved operatingcharacteristics may involve analyzing both electrical aspects andmechanical aspects of aperture 210 and crystalline structure 100, andthe atoms therein, so that aperture 210 is maintained sufficiently tooperate in an ELR state at higher temperatures.

In some implementations of the invention, conceptually speaking, aspring constant of spring S₁ may be changed such that S₁′≠S₁ asillustrated in FIG. 5. A changed spring constant tends to change theamplitude, modes, frequency, direction, and/or other vibrationalcharacteristics of vibrations of the mechanical model. The changedspring constant may guide a corresponding change in crystallinestructure 100, for example, a change to a rigidity of first portion 220of crystalline structure 100. The rigidity of first portion 220 ofcrystalline structure 100 may be changed by changing various atomswithin first portion 220 to affect bond lengths, bond strengths, bondangles, number of bonds or other atomic characteristics of atoms withinfirst portion 220. The rigidity of first portion 220 of crystallinestructure 100 may be changed by bonding fewer or more atoms to firstportion 220 thereby effectively changing the spring constant of springS₁ as would be appreciated.

In some implementations of the invention, conceptually speaking, aspring constant of spring S₂ may be changed such that S₂′≠S₂ asillustrated in FIG. 6. As described above, a changed spring constanttends to change the amplitude, modes, frequency, direction, and/or othervibrational characteristics of vibrations of the mechanical model. Thechanged spring constant may guide a corresponding change in crystallinestructure 100, for example, a change to a rigidity of second portion 230of crystalline structure 100 in a manner similar to that described abovewith regard to spring S₁. The rigidity of second portion 230 ofcrystalline structure 100 may be changed by bonding fewer or more atomsto second portion 230 thereby effectively changing the spring constantof spring S₂ as would be appreciated.

In some implementations of the invention, again, conceptually speaking,a spring constant of spring S_(F) may be changed such that S_(F)′≠S_(F)as illustrated in FIG. 7. As described above, a changed spring constanttends to change the amplitude, modes, frequency, direction, and/or othervibrational characteristics of vibrations of the mechanical model. Thechanged spring constant may guide a corresponding change in crystallinestructure 100, for example, a change to a rigidity of aperture 210formed within crystalline structure 100. This may be accomplished in avariety of ways including, but not limited to, changing a shape ofaperture 210 to one that is structurally different in strength thanother shapes, changing bond strengths between aperture atoms, changingbond angles, changing modes of vibration of crystalline structure 100,changing apertures atoms 250, or other ways. This may also beaccomplished, for example, by layering a material over crystallinestructure 100 such that atoms of the material span aperture 210 byforming one or more bonds between first portion 220 and second portion230 thereby effectively changing the spring constant of spring S_(F) aswould be appreciated. In other words, the atoms spanning aperture 210introduce an additional spring S in parallel with S_(F), that in effect,changes the spring constant between first portion 220 and second portion230. This modification of layering material over crystalline structure100 is described in further detail below in connection with variousexperimental test results.

In some implementations of the invention, again conceptually speaking, amass of mass M₁ may be decreased such that M₁′<M₁ as illustrated in FIG.8. A decreased mass tends to change various amplitude, modes, frequency,direction and/or other vibrational characteristics of vibrations of themechanical model. The decreased mass may guide a corresponding change incrystalline structure 100, which may ultimately lead to maintainingand/or stabilizing aperture 210 within crystalline structure 100 athigher temperatures. This may be accomplished by, for example, usingsmaller molecules and/or atoms within first portion 220 of crystallinestructure 100 or replacing various larger molecules and/or atoms withsmaller ones. Similar effects may be achieved by decreasing a mass ofmass M₂.

In some implementations of the invention, again conceptually speaking, amass of mass M₁ may be increased such that M₁′>M₁ as illustrated in FIG.9. An increased mass tends to change various amplitude, modes,frequency, direction and/or other vibrational characteristics ofvibrations of the mechanical model. The increased mass may guide acorresponding change in crystalline structure 100, which may ultimatelylead to maintaining and/or stabilizing aperture 210 within crystallinestructure 100 at higher temperatures. This may be accomplished by, forexample, using larger atoms within first portion 220 of crystallinestructure 100 or replacing various smaller atoms with larger ones.Similar effects may be achieved by increasing a mass of mass M₂.

In various implementations of the invention, any combination of thevarious changes described above with regard to FIGS. 5-9 may be made tochange vibrations of the mechanical model, which may guide correspondingchanges in crystalline structure 100 in order to maintain aperture 210at higher temperatures. In some implementations of the invention,tradeoffs between various changes may be necessary in order to provide anet improvement to the maintenance of aperture 210.

In some implementations of the invention, a three-dimensional computermodel of crystalline structure 100 may be used to design an ELR materialwith an appropriate aperture 210 that is maintained at highertemperatures. Such models may be used to analyze interactions betweenaperture atoms 250 and/or non-aperture atoms and their respective impacton aperture 210 over temperature as would be apparent. For example,various computer modeling tools may be used to visualize and analyzecrystalline structure 100, and in particular, visualize and analyzeapertures 210 in crystalline structure 100. One such computer modelingtool is referred to as “Jmol,” which is an open-source Java viewer forviewing and manipulating chemical structures in 3D. Jmol is available athttp://www.jmol.org.

In some implementations of the invention, various three-dimensionalcomputer models of crystalline structure 100 may be simulated todetermine and evaluate crystalline structures 100 and the interaction ofatoms therein. Such computer models may employ the density functionaltheory (“DFT”). Computer models employing DFT may be used to design newELR materials and modify existing ELR materials based on maintainingaperture 210 so that these ELR materials operate in an ELR state inaccordance with various principles of the invention described herein andas would be appreciated.

In some implementations of the invention, combinations of the springsand masses may be selected to change vibrations (including theirassociated vibrational characteristics) that affect aperture 210 withincrystalline structure 100 according to various known techniques. Inother words, the springs and masses may be modified and/or selected tochange amplitude, modes, frequency, direction and/or other vibrationalcharacteristics of various vibrations within crystalline structure 100to minimize their impact on aperture 210. By way of example, the springsand masses may be modified and/or selected to permit vibrations withincrystalline structure 100 in directions parallel (or substantiallyparallel) to the propagation of electrical charge through aperture 210thereby reducing the impact of such vibrations on aperture 210. By wayof further example, the springs and masses may be modified and/orselected to adjust various resonant frequencies with crystallinestructure 100 to propagate electrical charge through aperture 210 atdifferent temperatures.

In some implementations of the invention, combinations of the springsand masses may be selected to maintain aperture 210 within crystallinestructure 100 regardless of vibrations experienced within crystallinestructure 100. In other words, reducing, increasing and/or otherwisechanging vibrations within crystalline structure 100 may not otherwiseimpact the resistance phenomenon provided that aperture 210 itself ismaintained.

FIG. 10 illustrates a modified crystalline structure 1010 of a modifiedELR material 1060 as viewed from the second perspective in accordancewith various implementations of the invention. FIG. 11 illustratesmodified crystalline structure 1010 of modified ELR material 1060 asviewed from the first perspective in accordance with variousimplementations of the invention. ELR material 360 (e.g., for example,as illustrated in FIG. 3 and elsewhere) is modified to form modified ELRmaterial 1060. Modifying material 1020 forms bonds with atoms ofcrystalline structure 300 (of FIG. 3) of ELR material 360 to formmodified crystalline structure 1010 of modified ELR material 1060 asillustrated in FIG. 11. As illustrated, modifying material 1020 bridgesa gap between first portion 320 and second portion 330 thereby changing,among other things, vibration characteristics of modified crystallinestructure 1010, particularly in the region of aperture 310. In doing so,modifying material 1020 maintains aperture 310 at higher temperatures.In reference to FIG. 7, modifying material 1020 serves to modify theeffective spring constant of spring S_(F), by, for example, acting asone or more additional springs in parallel with spring S_(F).Accordingly, in some implementations of the invention, modifyingmaterial 1020 is specifically selected to fit in and bond withappropriate atoms in crystalline structure 300.

In some implementations of the invention and as illustrated in FIG. 10,modifying material 1020 is bonded a face of crystalline structure 300that is parallel to the b-plane (e.g., an “a-c” face). In suchimplementations where modifying material 1020 is bonded to the “a-c”face, apertures 310 extending in the direction of the a-axis and withcross-sections lying in the a-plane are maintained. In suchimplementations, charge carriers flow through aperture 310 in thedirection of the a-axis.

In some implementations of the invention, modifying material 1020 isbonded to a face of crystalline structure 300 that is parallel to thea-plane (e.g., a “b-c” face). In such implementations where modifyingmaterial 1020 is bonded to the “b-c” face, apertures 310 extending inthe direction of the b-axis and with cross-sections lying in the b-planeare maintained. In such implementations, charge carriers flow throughaperture 310 in the direction of the b-axis.

Various implementations of the invention include layering a particularsurface of ELR material 360 with modifying material 1020 (i.e.,modifying the particular surface of ELR material 360 with the modifyingmaterial 1020). As would be recognized from this description, referenceto “modifying a surface” of ELR material 360, ultimately includesmodifying a face (and in some cases more that one face) of one or moreunit cells 2100 of ELR material 360. In other words, modifying material1020 actually bonds to atoms in unit cell 2100 of ELR material 360.

For example, modifying a surface of ELR material 360 parallel to thea-plane includes modifying “b-c” faces of unit cells 2100. Likewise,modifying a surface of ELR material 360 parallel to the b-plane includesmodifying “a-c” faces of unit cells 2100. In some implementations of theinvention, modifying material 1020 is bonded to a surface of ELRmaterial 360 that is substantially parallel to any plane that isparallel to the c-axis. For purposes of this description, planes thatare parallel to the c-axis are referred to generally as ab-planes, andas would be appreciated, include the a-plane and the b-plane. As wouldbe appreciated, a surface of ELR material 360 parallel to the ab-planeis formed from some mixture of “a-c” faces and “b-c” faces of unit cells2100. In such implementations where modifying material 1020 is bonded toa surface parallel to an ab-plane, apertures 310 extending in thedirection of the a-axis and apertures 310 extending in the direction ofthe b-axis are maintained.

In some implementations of the invention, modifying material 1020 may bea conductive material. In some implementations of the invention,modifying material 1020 may a material with high oxygen affinity (i.e.,a material that bonds easily with oxygen) (“oxygen bonding material”).In some implementations of the invention, modifying material 1020 may bea conductive material that bonds easily with oxygen (“oxygen bondingconductive materials”). Such oxygen bonding conductive materials mayinclude, but are not limited to: chromium, copper, bismuth, cobalt,vanadium, and titanium. Such oxygen bonding conductive materials mayalso include, but are not limited to: rhodium or beryllium. Othermodifying materials may include gallium or selenium. In someimplementations of the invention, modifying material 1020 may bechromium (Cr). In some implementations of the invention, modifyingmaterial 1020 may be copper (Cu). In some implementations of theinvention, modifying material 1020 may be bismuth (Bi). In someimplementations of the invention, modifying material 1020 may be cobalt(Co). In some implementations of the invention, modifying material 1020may be vanadium (V). In some implementations of the invention, modifyingmaterial 1020 may be titanium (Ti). In some implementations of theinvention, modifying material 1020 may be rhodium (Rh). In someimplementations of the invention, modifying material 1020 may beberyllium (Be). In some implementations of the invention, modifyingmaterial 1020 may be gallium (Ga). In some implementations of theinvention, modifying material 1020 may be selenium (Se). In someimplementations of the invention, other elements may be used asmodifying material 1020. In some implementations of the invention,combinations of different materials (e.g., compounds, compositions,molecules, alloys, etc.) may be used as modifying material 1020. In someimplementations of the invention, various layers of materials and/orcombinations of materials may be used collectively as modifying material1020. In some implementations of the invention, modifying material 1020corresponds to atoms having appropriate bonding with oxygen. In someimplementations of the invention, modifying material 1020 includes atomsthat have bond lengths with various atom(s) in crystalline structure1010 at least as large as half the distance between atoms of firstportion 320 and atoms of second portion 330. In some implementations ofthe invention, modifying material 1020 includes atoms that bond withvarious atom(s) in crystalline structure 1010. In some implementationsof the invention, modifying material 1020 includes atoms that bond wellwith various atom(s) in crystalline structure 1010.

In some implementations of the invention, oxides of modifying material1020 may form during various operations associated with modifying ELRmaterial 360 with modifying material 1020. Accordingly, in someimplementations of the invention, modifying material 1020 may comprise asubstantially pure form of modifying material 1020 and various oxides ofmodifying material 1020. In other words, in some implementations of theinvention, ELR material 360 is modified with modifying material 1020 andvarious oxides of modifying material 1020. By way of example, but notlimitation, in some implementations of the invention, modifying material1020 may comprise chromium and chromium oxide (Cr_(x)O_(y)). In someimplementations of the invention, ELR material 360 is modified withvarious oxides of modifying material 1020. By way of example, but notlimitation, in some implementations of the invention, ELR material 360is modified with chromium oxide (Cr_(x)O_(y)).

In some implementations of the invention, other materials may be used tomodify crystalline structure 1010. For example, a modifying material1020 having increased bond strengths in relation to the copper oxidelayer may be selected to replace yttrium (one of the aperture atoms).Also for example, a modifying material 1020 having increased bondstrengths in relation to yttrium may be selected to replace the copperoxide layer. For example, chromium oxide (CrO) may be selected toreplace the copper oxide (CuO). Also for example, a modifying material1020 having increased bond strengths in relation to the copper oxidelayer may be selected to replace barium. While these examples refer tobond strengths, various modifying materials 1020 may be selected basedon other atomic characteristics or combinations thereof that tend tomaintain aperture 310 at higher temperatures, for example, but notlimited to, modifying materials 1020 that may result in net changes invibrations in crystalline structure 1010.

In some implementations of the invention, ELR material 360 may be YBCOand modifying material 1020 may be an oxygen bonding conductivematerial. In some implementations of the invention, modifying material1020 may be chromium and ELR material 360 may be YBCO. In someimplementations of the invention, modifying material 1020 may be copperand ELR material 360 may be YBCO. In some implementations of theinvention, modifying material 1020 may be bismuth and ELR material 360may be YBCO. In some implementations of the invention, modifyingmaterial 1020 may be cobalt and ELR material 360 may be YBCO. In someimplementations of the invention, modifying material 1020 may bevanadium and ELR material 360 may be YBCO. In some implementations ofthe invention, modifying material 1020 may be titanium and ELR material360 may be YBCO. In some implementations of the invention, modifyingmaterial 1020 may be rhodium and ELR material 360 may be YBCO. In someimplementations of the invention, modifying material 1020 may beberyllium and ELR material 360 may be YBCO. In some implementations ofthe invention, modifying material 1020 is another oxygen bondingconductive material and ELR material 360 may be YBCO.

In some implementations of the invention, modifying material 1020 may begallium and ELR material 360 may be YBCO. In some implementations of theinvention, modifying material 1020 may be selenium and ELR material 360may be YBCO.

In some implementations of the invention, various other combinations ofmixed-valence copper-oxide perovskite materials and oxygen bondingconductive materials may be used. For example, in some implementationsof the invention, ELR material 360 corresponds to a mixed-valencecopper-oxide perovskite material commonly referred to as “BSCCO.” BSCCOincludes various atoms of bismuth (“Bi”), strontium (“Sr”), calcium(“Ca”), copper (“Cu”) and oxygen (“O”). By itself, BSCCO has atransition temperature of approximately 100K. In some implementations ofthe invention, ELR material 360 may be BSCCO and modifying material 1020may be an oxygen bonding conductive material. In some implementations ofthe invention, ELR material 360 may be BSCCO and modifying material 1020may be selected from the group including, but not limited to: chromium,copper, bismuth, cobalt, vanadium, titanium, rhodium, or beryllium. Insome implementations of the invention, ELR material 360 may be BSCCO andmodifying material 1020 may be selected from the group consisting of:chromium, copper, bismuth, cobalt, vanadium, titanium, rhodium, andberyllium.

In some implementations of the invention, various combinations of otherELR materials and modifying materials may be used. For example, in someimplementations of the invention, ELR material 360 corresponds to aniron pnictide material. Iron pnictides, by themselves, have transitiontemperatures that range from approximately 25-60K. In someimplementations of the invention, ELR material 360 may be an ironpnictide and modifying material 1020 may be an oxygen bonding conductivematerial. In some implementations of the invention, ELR material 360 maybe an iron pnictide and modifying material 1020 may be selected from thegroup including, but not limited to: chromium, copper, bismuth, cobalt,vanadium, titanium, rhodium, or beryllium. In some implementations ofthe invention, ELR material 360 may be an iron pnictide and modifyingmaterial 1020 may be selected from the group consisting of: chromium,copper, bismuth, cobalt, vanadium, titanium, rhodium, and beryllium.

In some implementations of the invention, various combinations of otherELR materials and modifying materials may be used. For example, in someimplementations of the invention, ELR material 360 may be magnesiumdiboride (“MgB₂”). By itself, magnesium diboride has a transitiontemperature of approximately 39K. In some implementations of theinvention, ELR material 360 may be magnesium diboride and modifyingmaterial 1020 may be an oxygen bonding conductive material. In someimplementations of the invention, ELR material 360 may be magnesiumdiboride and modifying material 1020 may be selected from the groupincluding, but not limited to: chromium, copper, bismuth, cobalt,vanadium, titanium, rhodium, or beryllium. In some implementations ofthe invention, ELR material 360 may be magnesium diboride and modifyingmaterial 1020 may be selected from the group consisting of: chromium,copper, bismuth, cobalt, vanadium, titanium, rhodium, and beryllium.

In some implementations of the invention, modifying material 1020 may belayered onto a sample of ELR material 360 using various techniques forlayering one composition onto another composition as would beappreciated. For example, such layering techniques include, but are notlimited to, pulsed laser deposition, evaporation includingcoevaporation, e-beam evaporation and activated reactive evaporation,sputtering including magnetron sputtering, ion beam sputtering and ionassisted sputtering, cathodic arc deposition, CVD, organometallic CVD,plasma enhanced CVD, molecular beam epitaxy, a sol-gel process, liquidphase epitaxy and/or other layering techniques. In some implementationsof the invention, ELR material 360 may be layered onto a sample ofmodifying material 1020 using various techniques for layering onecomposition onto another composition. In some implementations of theinvention, a single atomic layer of modifying material 1020 (i.e., alayer of modifying material 1020 having a thickness substantially equalto a single atom or molecule of modifying material 1020) may be layeredonto a sample of ELR material 360. In some implementations of theinvention, a single unit layer of the modifying material (i.e., a layerof the modifying material having a thickness substantially equal to asingle unit (e.g., atom, molecule, crystal, or other unit) of themodifying material) may be layered onto a sample of the ELR material. Insome implementations of the invention, the ELR material may be layeredonto a single unit layer of the modifying material. In someimplementations of the invention, two or more unit layers of themodifying material may be layered onto the ELR material. In someimplementations of the invention, the ELR material may be layered ontotwo or more unit layers of the modifying material.

Others have attempted to layer various compositions (e.g., gold, copper,silicon, etc.) onto known ELR materials in an effort to improve theirusefulness in various applications. However, the selection of suchcompositions was not based on an intent to change, enhance or otherwisemaintain aperture 210, specifically with regard to: various geometriccharacteristics of crystalline structure 100 and aperture 210 (forexample, but not limited to, the width of the gap between first portion220 and second portion 230, size of aperture 210, etc.); atomiccharacteristics of aperture atoms 250 in crystalline structure 100,their interaction with each other and their impact on aperture 210 astemperature changes; and atomic characteristics of atoms in crystallinestructure 100 and their interaction with modifying material 1020 (forexample, but not limited to, various bonding properties of modifyingmaterial 1020 with atoms in crystalline structure 100).

In some implementations of the invention, changes to lattices usedwithin crystalline structure 100 may be made. For example, latticeshaving monoclinic crystal symmetries, orthorhombic crystal symmetries,or cubic crystal symmetries may be used to improve various otherlattices within crystalline structure 100. In addition, a body-centeredcubic symmetry or a face-centered cubic symmetry may be used to improvea simple cubic symmetry within crystalline structure 100. In someimplementations, a wider variety of lattices within crystallinestructure 100 may maintain aperture 210 at higher temperatures. In someimplementations, more complex lattices within crystalline structure 100may maintain aperture 210 at higher temperatures.

In some implementations of the invention, crystalline structure 100 maybe designed so that phonons (i.e., lattice vibrations) withincrystalline structure 100 predominately propagate through crystallinestructure 100 in a single direction that is parallel to the propagationof electrical charge through aperture 210 (i.e., into the page of, forexample, FIG. 2). Such phonons tend not to affect aperture 210 therebypermitting aperture 210 to operate in an ELR state at highertemperatures. Any phonons propagating orthogonal to the propagation ofelectrical charge through aperture 210 may be minimized so as to avoidaffecting aperture 210.

FIGS. 12 and 13A-13I are now used to describe modifying a sample 1310 ofan ELR material 360 to produce a modified ELR material 1060 according tovarious implementations of the invention. FIG. 12 is a flowchart formodifying sample 1310 of ELR material 360 with a modifying material 1020to produce a modified ELR material 1060 according to variousimplementations of the invention. FIGS. 13A-13J illustrate sample 1310of ELR material 360 undergoing modifications to produce modified ELRmaterial 1060 according to various implementations of the invention. Insome implementations of the invention, ELR material 360 is amixed-valence copper-oxide perovskite material and modifying material1380 is an oxygen bonding conductive material. In some implementationsof the invention, ELR material 360 is an HTS material commonly referredto as YBCO and modifying material 1380 is chromium.

As illustrated in FIG. 13A, sample 1310 is a plurality of crystallineunit cells of ELR material 360 and is oriented with its non-conductingaxis (or more particularly, its non-ELR or non-superconducting axis)along the c-axis. In some implementations of the invention, sample 1310has dimensions of approximately 5 mm×10 mm×10 mm. For purposes of thisdescription, sample 1310 is oriented so that a primary axis ofconduction of ELR material 360 aligned along the a-axis. As would beapparent, if ELR material 360 includes two primary axes of conduction,sample 1310 may be oriented along either the a-axis or the b-axis. Aswould be further appreciated, in some implementations sample 1310 may beoriented along any line within the c-plane (i.e., a face parallel withany ab-plane). In an operation 1210 and as illustrated in FIG. 13B andFIG. 13C, a slice 1320 is produced by cutting sample 1310 along a planesubstantially parallel to the a-plane of sample 1310. In someimplementations of the invention, slice 1320 is approximately 3 mm thickalthough other thicknesses may be used. In some implementations of theinvention, this may be accomplished using a precision diamond blade.

In an optional operation 1220 and as illustrated in FIG. 13D, FIG. 13E,and FIG. 13F, a wedge 1330 is produced by cutting slice 1320 along adiagonal of the a-plane of slice 1320 to expose various apertures insample 1310. In some implementations of the invention, this isaccomplished using a precision diamond blade. This operation produces aface 1340 on the diagonal surface of wedge 1330 having exposedapertures. In some implementations of the invention, face 1340corresponds to any plane that is substantially parallel to the c-axis.In some implementations of the invention, face 1340 corresponds to aplane substantially perpendicular to the a-axis (i.e., the a-plane ofcrystalline structure 100). In some implementations of the invention,face 1340 corresponds to a plane substantially perpendicular to theb-axis (i.e., the b-plane of crystalline structure 100). In someimplementations of the invention, face 1340 corresponds to a planesubstantially perpendicular to any line in the ab-plane. In someimplementations of the invention, face 1340 corresponds to any planethat is not substantially perpendicular to the c-axis. In someimplementations of the invention, face 1340 corresponds to any planethat is not substantially perpendicular to any substantiallynon-conducting axis (or non-ELR or non-superconducting axis) of the ELRmaterial 360. As would be appreciated, operation 1220 may not benecessary as slice 1320 may have exposed apertures and/or othercharacteristics similar to those discussed above with reference to face1340.

In an operation 1230 and as illustrated in FIG. 13G and FIG. 13J, amodifying material 1380 (e.g., modifying material 1020 as illustrated inFIG. 10 and elsewhere) is deposited onto face 1340 to produce a face1350 of modifying material 1380 on wedge 1330 and a modified region 1360of modified ELR material 1060 at an interface between face 1340 andmodifying material 1380. Modified region 1360 in wedge 1330 correspondsto a region in wedge 1330 where modifying material 1380 bonds tocrystalline structure 300 in accordance with various implementations ofthe invention to improve crystalline structure 300 in proximity toaperture 310. Other forms of bonding modifying material 1380 to ELRmaterial 360 may be used. Operation 1230 is described in further detailbelow in reference to FIG. 14.

Referring to FIG. 14, in an operation 1410, face 1340 is polished. Insome implementations of the invention, one or more polishes may be used.In some implementations of the invention that include YBCO as the ELRmaterial, one or more non-water-based polishes may be used, including,but not limited to isopropyl alcohol, heptane, non-organic or stableorganic slurries. In some implementations of the invention, water-basedpolishes may be used. In some implementations of the invention, face1340 is finally polished with a 20 nm colloidal slurry. In someimplementations of the invention, polishing of face 1340 is performed ina direction substantially parallel to the a-axis of wedge 1330 (i.e.,along a direction of apertures 310). In some implementations of theinvention, oxygen plasma ashing may be used as would be appreciated. Insome implementations of the invention, cleanliness of face 1340 (i.e.,absence of impurities or other materials, compositions, or compounds)just prior to layering modifying material 1380 thereon may be importantto achieving improved operational characteristics in the modified ELRmaterial over those of the unmodified ELR material.

In an operation 1420, one or more surfaces other than face 1340 aremasked. In some implementations, all surfaces other than face 1340 aremasked. In an operation 1430, modifying material 1380 is deposited ontoface 1340 using vapor deposition. In some implementations of theinvention, approximately 40 nm of modifying material 1380 is depositedonto face 1340 using vapor deposition, although smaller or largeramounts of modifying material 1380 may be used. In some implementationsof the invention, modifying material 1380 is deposited onto face 1340using vapor deposition under a vacuum, which may have a pressure of5×10⁻⁶ torr or less.

Referring to FIG. 12, FIG. 13H and FIG. 13I, in an optional operation1240, in some implementations of the invention, a portion of wedge 1330is removed to reduce a size of wedge 1330 to produce a wedge 1390. In anoperation 1250, double-ended leads are applied to each of the twoa-planes (i.e., “b-c” faces) of wedge 1390 using a bonding agent. Insome implementations of the invention, silver paste (Alfa Aesar silverpaste #42469) is used to apply double-ended leads to the two a-planes(i.e., “b-c” faces) of wedge 1390. In an operation 1260, the bondingagent is cured. In some implementations using silver paste as thebonding agent, the silver paste is cured for one hour at 60° C. and thencured for an additional hour at 150° C. Other curing protocols may beused as would be apparent. In some implementations of the invention, aconductive material, such as, but not limited to, silver, is sputteredor otherwise bonded onto each of the two b-c faces of wedge 1390 and thedouble-ended leads are attached thereto as would be apparent. Othermechanisms for attaching double-ended leads to wedge 490 may be used.After operation 1250, wedge 1390 with modified region 1360 (illustratedin FIG. 13J) is ready for testing.

FIG. 15 illustrates a test bed 1500 useful for determining variousoperational characteristics of wedge 1390. Test bed 1500 includes ahousing 1510 and four clamps 1520. Wedge 1390 is placed in housing 1510and each of the double-ended leads are clamped to housing 1510 usingclamps 1520 as illustrated. The leads are clamped to housing 1510 toprovide stress relief in order to prevent flexure and/or fracture of thecured silver paste. A current source is applied to one end of the pairof double-ended leads and a voltmeter measures voltage across the otherend of the pair of double-ended leads. This configuration provides amulti-point technique for determining resistance of wedge 1390, and inparticular, of modified ELR material 1060 as would be appreciated.

FIGS. 16A-16G illustrate test results 1600 obtained as described above.Test results 1600 include a plot of resistance of modified ELR material1060 as a function of temperature (in K). More particularly, testresults 1600 correspond to modified ELR material 1060 where modifyingmaterial 1380 corresponds to chromium and where ELR material 360corresponds to YBCO. FIG. 16A includes test results 1600 over a fullrange of temperature over which resistance of modified ELR material 1060was measured, namely 84K to 286K. In order to provide further detail,test results 1600 were broken into various temperature ranges andillustrated. In particular, FIG. 16B illustrates those test results 1600within a temperature range from 240K to 280K; FIG. 16C illustrates thosetest results 1600 within a temperature range from 210K to 250K; FIG. 16Dillustrates those test results 1600 within a temperature range from 180Kto 220K; FIG. 16E illustrates those test results 1600 within atemperature range from 150K to 190K; FIG. 16F illustrates those testresults 1600 within a temperature range from 120K to 160K; and FIG. 16Gillustrates those test results 1600 within a temperature range from84.5K to 124.5K.

Test results 1600 demonstrate that various portions of modified ELRmaterial 1060 within wedge 1390 operate in an ELR state at highertemperatures relative to ELR material 360. Six sample analysis test runswere made using wedge 1390. For each sample analysis test run, test bed1510, with wedge 1390 mounted therein, was slowly cooled fromapproximately 286K to 83K. While being cooled, the current sourceapplied +60 nA and −60 nA of current in a delta mode configurationthrough wedge 1390 in order to reduce impact of any DC offsets and/orthermocouple effects. At regular time intervals, the voltage acrosswedge 1390 was measured by the voltmeter. For each sample analysis testrun, the time series of voltage measurements were filtered using a512-point fast Fourier transform (“FFT”). All but the lowest 44frequencies from the FFT were eliminated from the data and the filtereddata was returned to the time domain. The filtered data from each sampleanalysis test run were then merged together to produce test results1600. More particularly, all the resistance measurements from the sixsample analysis test runs were organized into a series of temperatureranges (e.g., 80K-80.25K, 80.25K to 80.50, 80.5K to 80.75K, etc.) in amanner referred to as “binning.” Then the resistance measurements ineach temperature range were averaged together to provide an averageresistance measurement for each temperature range. These averageresistance measurements form test results 1600.

Test results 1600 include various discrete steps 1610 in the resistanceversus temperature plot, each of such discrete steps 1610 representing arelatively rapid change in resistance over a relatively narrow range oftemperatures. At each of these discrete steps 1610, discrete portions ofmodified ELR material 1060 begin propagating electrical charge up tosuch portions' charge propagating capacity at the respectivetemperatures. This behavior is described in reference to FIG. 13J, whichillustrates an interface between modifying material 1380 and ELRmaterial 360. At very small scales, face 1340 is not perfectly smooth.In fact, as illustrated, only portions of apertures 310 are exposedwithin face 1340 and hence only small portions of ELR material 360 maybe modified. Hence, apertures 310 within modified ELR material 1060typically do not extend across the entire width or length of wedge 1390.Accordingly, in some implementations of the invention, modifyingmaterial 1380 covers an entire surface of ELR material 360 and may actas a conductor that carries electrical charge between apertures 310.

Before discussing test results 1600 in further detail, variouscharacteristics of ELR material 360 and modifying material 1380 arediscussed. Resistance versus temperature (“R-T”) profiles of thesematerials individually are generally well known. The individual R-Tprofiles of these materials are not believed to include features similarto discrete steps 1610 found in test results 1600. In fact, unmodifiedsamples of ELR material 360 and samples of modifying material 1380 alonehave been tested under similar and often identical testing andmeasurement configurations. In each instance, the R-T profile of theunmodified samples of ELR material 360 and the R-T profile of themodifying material alone did not include any features similar todiscrete steps 1610. Accordingly, discrete steps 1610 are the result ofmodifying ELR material 360 with modifying material 1380 to maintainaperture 310 at increased temperatures thereby allowing modifiedmaterial 1380 to remain in an ELR state at such increased temperaturesin accordance with various implementations of the invention.

At each of discrete steps 1610, various ones of apertures 310 withinmodified ELR material 1060 start propagating electrical charge up toeach aperture's 310 charge propagating capacity. As measured by thevoltmeter, each charge propagating aperture 310 appears as ashort-circuit, dropping the apparent voltage across wedge 1390 by asmall amount. The apparent voltage continues to drop as additional onesof apertures 310 start propagating electrical charge until thetemperature of wedge 1390 reaches the transition temperature of ELRmaterial 360 (i.e., the transition temperature of the unmodified ELRmaterial which in the case of YBCO is approximately 90K).

Test results 1600 indicate that certain apertures 310 within modifiedELR material 1060 propagate electrical charge at approximately 97K. Inother words, test results indicate that certain apertures 310 withinmodified ELR material 1060 propagate electrical charge throughcrystalline structure of the modified ELR material 1060 at approximately97K. Test results 1600 also indicate that: certain apertures 310 withinmodified ELR material 1060 propagate electrical charge at approximately100K; certain apertures 310 within modified ELR material 1060 propagateelectrical charge at approximately 103K; certain apertures 310 withinmodified ELR material 1060 propagate electrical charge at approximately113K; certain apertures 310 within modified ELR material 1060 propagateelectrical charge at approximately 126K; certain apertures 310 withinmodified ELR material 1060 propagate electrical charge at approximately140K; certain apertures 310 within modified ELR material 1060 propagateelectrical charge at approximately 146K; certain apertures 310 withinmodified ELR material 1060 propagate electrical charge at approximately179K; certain apertures 310 within modified ELR material 1060 propagateelectrical charge at approximately 183.5K; certain apertures 310 withinmodified ELR material 1060 propagate electrical charge at approximately200.5K; certain apertures 310 within modified ELR material 1060propagate electrical charge at approximately 237.5K; and certainapertures 310 within modified ELR material 1060 propagate electricalcharge at approximately 250K. Certain apertures 310 within modified ELRmaterial 1060 may propagate electrical charge at other temperatureswithin the full temperature range as would be appreciated.

Test results 1600 include various other relatively rapid changes inresistance over a relatively narrow range of temperatures not otherwiseidentified as a discrete step 1610. Some of these other changes maycorrespond to artifacts from data processing techniques used on themeasurements obtained during the test runs (e.g., FFTs, filtering,etc.). Some of these other changes may correspond to changes inresistance due to resonant frequencies in modified crystalline structure1010 affecting aperture 310 at various temperatures. Some of these otherchanges may correspond to additional discrete steps 1610. In addition,changes in resistance in the temperature range of 270-274K are likely tobe associated with water present in modified ELR material 1060, some ofwhich may have been introduced during preparation of wedge 1380, forexample, but not limited to, during operation 1410.

In addition to discrete steps 1610, test results 1600 differ from theR-T profile of ELR material 360 in that modifying material 1380 conductswell at temperatures above the transition temperature of ELR material360 whereas ELR material 360 typically does not.

FIG. 24 illustrates additional test results 2400 for samples of ELRmaterial 360 and modifying material 1380. More particularly, for testresults 2400, modifying material 1380 corresponds to chromium and ELRmaterial 360 corresponds to YBCO. For test results 2400, samples of ELRmaterial 360 were prepared, using various techniques discussed above, toexpose a face of crystalline structure 300 parallel to the a-plane orthe b-plane. Test results 2400 were gathered using a lock-in amplifierand a K6221 current source, which applied a 10 nA current at 24.0, Hz tomodified ELR material 1060. Test results 2400 include a plot ofresistance of modified ELR material 1060 as a function of temperature(in K). FIG. 24 includes test results 2400 over a full range oftemperature over which resistance of modified ELR material 1060 wasmeasured, namely 80K to 275K. Test results 2400 demonstrate that variousportions of modified ELR material 1060 operate in an ELR state at highertemperatures relative to ELR material 360. Five sample analysis testruns were made with a sample of modified ELR material 1060. For eachsample analysis test run, the sample of modified ELR material 1060 wasslowly warmed from 80K to 275K. While being warmed, the voltage acrossthe sample of modified ELR material 1060 was measured at regular timeintervals and the resistance was calculated based on the source current.For each sample analysis test run, the time series of resistancemeasurements were filtered using a 1024-point FFT. All but the lowest 15frequencies from the FFT were eliminated from the data and the filteredresistance measurements were returned to the time domain. The filteredresistance measurements from each sample analysis test run were thenmerged together using the binning process referred to above to producetest results 2400. Then the resistance measurements in each temperaturerange were averaged together to provide an average resistancemeasurement for each temperature range. These average resistancemeasurements form test results 2400.

Test results 2400 include various discrete steps 2410 in the resistanceversus temperature plot, each of such discrete steps 2410 representing arelatively rapid change in resistance over a relatively narrow range oftemperatures, similar to discrete steps 1610 discussed above withrespect to FIGS. 16A-16G. At each of these discrete steps 2410, discreteportions of modified ELR material 1060 propagate electrical charge up tosuch portions' charge propagating capacity at the respectivetemperatures.

Test results 2400 indicate that certain apertures 310 within modifiedELR material 1060 propagate electrical charge at approximately 120K. Inother words, test results 2400 indicate that certain apertures 310within modified ELR material 1060 propagate electrical charge throughcrystalline structure of the modified ELR material 1060 at approximately120K. Test results 2400 also indicate that: certain apertures 310 withinmodified ELR material 1060 propagate electrical charge at approximately145K; certain apertures 310 within modified ELR material 1060 propagateelectrical charge at approximately 175K; certain apertures 310 withinmodified ELR material 1060 propagate electrical charge at approximately200K; certain apertures 310 within modified ELR material 1060 propagateelectrical charge at approximately 225K; and certain apertures 310within modified ELR material 1060 propagate electrical charge atapproximately 250K. Certain apertures 310 within modified ELR material1060 may propagate electrical charge at other temperatures within thefull temperature range as would be appreciated.

FIGS. 25-29 illustrate additional test results for samples of ELRmaterial 360 and various modifying materials 1380. For these additionaltest results, samples of ELR material 360 were prepared, using varioustechniques discussed above, to expose a face of crystalline structure300 substantially parallel to the a-plane or the b-plane or somecombination of the a-plane or the b-plane and the modifying material waslayered onto these exposed faces. Each of these modified samples wasslowly cooled from approximately 300K to 80K. While being warmed, acurrent source applied a current in a delta mode configuration throughthe modified sample as described below. At regular time intervals, thevoltage across the modified sample was measured. For each sampleanalysis test run, the time series of voltage measurements were filteredin the frequency domain using an FFT by removing all but the lowestfrequencies, and the filtered measurements were returned to the timedomain. The number of frequencies kept is in general different for eachdata set. The filtered data from each of test runs were then binned andaveraged together to produce the test results illustrated in FIGS.25-29.

FIG. 25 illustrates test results 2500 including a plot of resistance ofmodified ELR material 1060 as a function of temperature (in K). For testresults 2500, modifying material 1380 corresponds to vanadium and ELRmaterial 360 corresponds to YBCO. Test results 2500 were produced over11 test runs using a 20 nA current source, a 1024-point FFT wasperformed, and information from all but the lowest 12 frequencies wereeliminated. Test results 2500 demonstrate that various portions ofmodified ELR material 1060 operate in an ELR state at highertemperatures relative to ELR material 360. Test results 2500 includevarious discrete steps 2510 in the resistance versus temperature plot,similar to those discussed above with regard to FIGS. 16A-16G. Testresults 2500 indicate that: certain apertures 310 within modified ELRmaterial 1060 propagate electrical charge at approximately 267K; certainapertures 310 within modified ELR material 1060 propagate electricalcharge at approximately 257K; certain apertures 310 within modified ELRmaterial 1060 propagate electrical charge at approximately 243K; certainapertures 310 within modified ELR material 1060 propagate electricalcharge at approximately 232K; and certain apertures 310 within modifiedELR material 1060 propagate electrical charge at approximately 219K.Certain apertures 310 within modified ELR material 1060 may propagateelectrical charge at other temperatures.

FIG. 26 illustrates test results 2600 include a plot of resistance ofmodified ELR material 1060 as a function of temperature (in K). For testresults 2600, modifying material 1380 corresponds to bismuth and ELRmaterial 360 corresponds to YBCO. Test results 2600 were produced over 5test runs using a 400 nA current source, a 1024-point FFT was performed,and information from all but the lowest 12 frequencies were eliminated.Test results 2600 demonstrate that various portions of modified ELRmaterial 1060 operate in an ELR state at higher temperatures relative toELR material 360. Test results 2600 include various discrete steps 2610in the resistance versus temperature plot, similar to those discussedabove with regard to FIGS. 16A-16G. Test results 2600 indicate that:certain apertures 310 within modified ELR material 1060 propagateelectrical charge at approximately 262K; certain apertures 310 withinmodified ELR material 1060 propagate electrical charge at approximately235K; certain apertures 310 within modified ELR material 1060 propagateelectrical charge at approximately 200K; certain apertures 310 withinmodified ELR material 1060 propagate electrical charge at approximately172K; and certain apertures 310 within modified ELR material 1060propagate electrical charge at approximately 141K. Certain apertures 310within modified ELR material 1060 may propagate electrical charge atother temperatures.

FIG. 27 illustrates test results 2700 include a plot of resistance ofmodified ELR material 1060 as a function of temperature (in K). For testresults 2700, modifying material 1380 corresponds to copper and ELRmaterial 360 corresponds to YBCO. Test results 2500 were produced over 6test runs using a 200 nA current source, a 1024-point FFT was performed,and information from all but the lowest 12 frequencies were eliminated.Test results 2700 demonstrate that various portions of modified ELRmaterial 1060 operate in an ELR state at higher temperatures relative toELR material 360. Test results 2700 include various discrete steps 2710in the resistance versus temperature plot, similar to those discussedabove with regard to FIGS. 16A-16G. Test results 2700 indicate that:certain apertures 310 within modified ELR material 1060 propagateelectrical charge at approximately 268K; certain apertures 310 withinmodified ELR material 1060 propagate electrical charge at approximately256K; certain apertures 310 within modified ELR material 1060 propagateelectrical charge at approximately 247K; certain apertures 310 withinmodified ELR material 1060 propagate electrical charge at approximately235K; and certain apertures 310 within modified ELR material 1060propagate electrical charge at approximately 223K. Certain apertures 310within modified ELR material 1060 may propagate electrical charge atother temperatures.

FIG. 28 illustrates test results 2800 include a plot of resistance ofmodified ELR material 1060 as a function of temperature (in K). For testresults 2800, modifying material 1380 corresponds to cobalt and ELRmaterial 360 corresponds to YBCO. Test results 2500 were produced over11 test runs using a 400 nA current source, a 1024-point FFT wasperformed, and information from all but the lowest 12 frequencies wereeliminated. Test results 2800 demonstrate that various portions ofmodified ELR material 1060 operate in an ELR state at highertemperatures relative to ELR material 360. Test results 2800 includevarious discrete steps 2810 in the resistance versus temperature plot,similar to those discussed above with regard to FIGS. 16A-16G. Testresults 2800 indicate that: certain apertures 310 within modified ELRmaterial 1060 propagate electrical charge at approximately 265K; certainapertures 310 within modified ELR material 1060 propagate electricalcharge at approximately 236K; certain apertures 310 within modified ELRmaterial 1060 propagate electrical charge at approximately 205K; certainapertures 310 within modified ELR material 1060 propagate electricalcharge at approximately 174K; and certain apertures 310 within modifiedELR material 1060 propagate electrical charge at approximately 143K.Certain apertures 310 within modified ELR material 1060 may propagateelectrical charge at other temperatures.

FIG. 29 illustrates test results 2900 include a plot of resistance ofmodified ELR material 1060 as a function of temperature (in K). For testresults 2900, modifying material 1380 corresponds to titanium and ELRmaterial 360 corresponds to YBCO. Test results 2500 were produced over25 test runs using a 100 nA current source, a 512-point FFT wasperformed, and information from all but the lowest 11 frequencies wereeliminated. Test results 2900 demonstrate that various portions ofmodified ELR material 1060 operate in an ELR state at highertemperatures relative to ELR material 360. Test results 2900 includevarious discrete steps 2910 in the resistance versus temperature plot,similar to those discussed above with regard to FIGS. 16A-16G. Testresults 2900 indicate that: certain apertures 310 within modified ELRmaterial 1060 propagate electrical charge at approximately 266K; certainapertures 310 within modified ELR material 1060 propagate electricalcharge at approximately 242K; and certain apertures 310 within modifiedELR material 1060 propagate electrical charge at approximately 217K.Certain apertures 310 within modified ELR material 1060 may propagateelectrical charge at other temperatures.

In other experiments, modifying material 1020 was layered onto a surfaceof ELR material 360 substantially parallel to the c-plane of crystallinestructure 300. These tests results (not otherwise illustrated)demonstrate that layering a surface of ELR material 360 parallel to thec-plane with modifying material 1020 did not produce any discrete stepssuch as those described above (e.g., discrete steps 1610). These testresults indicate that modifying a surface of ELR material 360 that isperpendicular to a direction in which ELR material 360 does not (ortends to not) exhibit the resistance phenomenon does not improve theoperating characteristics of the unmodified ELR material. In otherwords, modifying such surfaces of ELR material 360 may not maintainaperture 310. In accordance with various principles of the invention,modifying material should be layered with surfaces of the ELR materialthat are parallel to the direction in which ELR material does not (ortends to not) exhibit the resistance phenomenon. More particularly, andfor example, with regard to ELR material 360 (illustrated in FIG. 3),modifying material 1020 should be bonded to an “a-c” face or a “b-c”face of crystalline structure 300 (both of which faces are parallel tothe c-axis) in ELR material 360 (which tends not to exhibit theresistance phenomenon in the direction of the c-axis) in order tomaintain aperture 310.

FIG. 20 illustrates an arrangement 2000 including alternating layers ofELR material 360 and a modifying material 1380 useful for propagatingadditional electrical charge according to various implementations of theinvention. Such layers may be deposited onto one another using variousdeposition techniques. Various techniques may be used to improvealignment of crystalline structures 300 within layers of ELR material360. Improved alignment of crystalline structures 300 may result inapertures 310 of increased length through crystalline structure 300which in turn may provide for operation at higher temperatures and/orwith increased charge propagating capacity. Arrangement 2000 providesincreased numbers of apertures 310 within modified ELR material 1060 ateach interface between adjacent layers of modifying material 1380 andELR material 360. Increased numbers of apertures 310 may increase acharge propagating capacity of arrangement 2000.

In some implementations of the invention, any number of layers may beused. In some implementations of the invention, other ELR materialsand/or other modifying materials may be used. In some implementations ofthe invention, additional layers of other material (e.g., insulators,conductors, or other materials) may be used between paired layers of ELRmaterial 360 and modifying material 1380 to mitigate various effects(e.g., magnetic effects, migration of materials, or other effects) or toenhance the characteristics of the modified ELR material 1060 formedwithin such paired layers. In some implementations of the invention, notall layers are paired. In other words, arrangement 2000 may have one ormore extra (i.e., unpaired) layers of ELR material 360 or one or moreextra layers of modifying material 1380.

FIG. 23 illustrates additional of layers 2310 (illustrated as a layer2310A, a layer 2310B, a layer 2310C, and a layer 2310D) of modifiedcrystalline structure 1010 in modified ELR material 1060 according tovarious implementations of the invention. As illustrated, modified ELRmaterial 1060 includes various apertures 310 (illustrated as an aperture310A, an aperture 310B, and an aperture 310C) at different distancesinto material 1060 from modifying material 1020 that form bonds withatoms of crystalline structure 300 (of FIG. 3). Aperture 310A is nearestmodifying material 1020, followed by aperture 310B, which in turn isfollowed by aperture 310C, etc. In accordance with variousimplementations of the invention, an impact of modifying material 1020is greatest with respect to aperture 310A, followed by a lesser impactwith respect to aperture 310B, which in turn is followed by a lesserimpact with respect to aperture 310C, etc. According to someimplementations of the invention, modifying material 1020 should bettermaintain aperture 310A than either aperture 310B or aperture 310C due toaperture 310A's proximity to modifying material 1020; likewise,modifying material 1020 should better maintain aperture 310B thanaperture 310C due to aperture 310B's proximity to modifying material1020, etc. According to some implementations of the invention, modifyingmaterial 1020 should better maintain the cross-section of aperture 310Athan the cross-sections of either aperture 310B or aperture 310C due toaperture 310A's proximity to modifying material 1020; likewise,modifying material 1020 should better maintain the cross-section ofaperture 310B than the cross-section of aperture 310C due to aperture310B's proximity to modifying material 1020, etc. According to someimplementations of the invention, modifying material 1020 should have agreater impact on a charge propagating capacity of aperture 310A at aparticular temperature than on a charge propagating capacity of eitheraperture 310B or aperture 310C at that particular temperature due toaperture 310A's proximity to modifying material 1020; likewise,modifying material 1020 should have a greater impact on the chargepropagating capacity of aperture 310B at a particular temperature thanon the charge propagating capacity of aperture 310C at that particulartemperature due to aperture 310B's proximity to modifying material 1020,etc. According to some implementations of the invention, modifyingmaterial 1020 should enhance the propagation of electrical chargethrough aperture 310A more than the propagation of electrical chargethrough either aperture 310B or aperture 310C due to aperture 310A'sproximity to modifying material 1020; likewise, modifying material 1020should enhance the propagation of electrical charge through aperture310B more than the propagation of electrical charge through aperture310C due to aperture 310B's proximity to modifying material 1020, etc.

Various test results described above, for example, test results 1600 ofFIG. 16, among others, support these aspects of various implementationsof the invention, i.e., generally, that the impact of modifying material1020 on apertures 310 varies in relation to their proximity to oneanother. In particular, each discrete step 1610 in test results 1600 maycorrespond to a change in electrical charge carried by modified ELRmaterial 1060 as those apertures 310 in a particular layer 2310 (or moreappropriately, those apertures 310 formed between adjacent layers 2310as illustrated) propagate electrical charge up to such apertures' 310charge propagating capacity. Those apertures 310 in layers 2310 closerin proximity to modifying material 1020 correspond to discrete steps1610 at higher temperatures whereas those apertures 310 in layers 2310further from modifying material 1020 correspond to discrete steps 1610at lower temperatures. Discrete steps 1610 are “discrete” in the sensethat apertures 310 at a given relative distance to modifying material1020 (i.e., apertures 310A between layers 2310A and 2310B) propagateelectrical charge at a particular temperature and quickly reach theirmaximum charge propagating capacity. Another discrete step 1610 isreached when apertures 310 at an increased distance from modifyingmaterial 1020 (i.e., apertures 310B between layers 2310B and 2310C)propagate electrical charge at a lower temperature as a result of theincreased distance and hence the lessened impact of modifying material1020 on those apertures 310. Each discrete step 1610 corresponds toanother set of apertures 310 beginning to carry electrical charge basedon their distance from modifying material 1020. At some distance,however, modifying material 1020 may have insufficient impact on someapertures 310 to cause them to carry electrical charge at a highertemperature than they otherwise would; hence, such apertures 310propagate electrical charge at a temperature consistent with that of ELRmaterial 360.

In some implementations of the invention, a distance between modifyingmaterial 1020 and apertures 310 is reduced so as to increase impact ofmodifying material 1020 on more apertures 310. In effect, more apertures310 should propagate electrical charge at discrete steps 1610 associatedwith higher temperatures. For example, in arrangement 2000 of FIG. 20and in accordance with various implementations of the invention, layersof ELR material 360 may be made to be only a few unit cells thick inorder to reduce the distance between apertures 310 in ELR material 360and modifying material 1380. Reducing this distance should increase thenumber of apertures 310 impacted by modifying material 1380 at a giventemperature. Reducing this distance also increases the number ofalternating layers of ELR material 360 in a given overall thickness ofarrangement 2000 thereby increasing an overall charge propagatingcapacity of arrangement 2000.

The flowcharts, illustrations, and block diagrams of the figuresillustrate the architecture, functionality, and operation of possibleimplementations of methods and products according to variousimplementations of the invention. It should also be noted that, in somealternative implementations, the functions noted in the blocks may occurout of the order noted in the figures. For example, two blocks shown insuccession may, in fact, be executed substantially concurrently, or theblocks may sometimes be executed in the reverse order, depending uponthe functionality involved.

Furthermore, although the foregoing description is directed towardvarious implementations of the invention, it is noted that othervariations and modifications will be apparent to those skilled in theart, and may be made without departing from the spirit or scope of theinvention. Moreover, various features described in connection with oneimplementation of the invention may be used in conjunction orcombination with various other features or other implementationsdescribed herein, even if not expressly stated above.

1-26. (canceled)
 27. A method comprising: layering a modifying materialwith an ELR material to form a modified ELR material, the ELR materialhaving a crystalline structure with at least one aperture formedtherein, wherein the at least one aperture facilitates propagation ofelectrical charge through the crystalline structure in an ELR state, andwherein the modified ELR material has an aperture that is maintained attemperatures greater than the at least one aperture of the ELR material.28. The method of claim 27, wherein the modifying material is layeredonto the ELR material.
 29. The method of claim 28, wherein the modifyingmaterial is deposited onto the ELR material.
 30. The method of claim 27,wherein the ELR material is layered onto the modifying material.
 31. Themethod of claim 30, wherein the ELR material is deposited onto themodifying material.
 32. The method of claim 28, wherein the ELR materialis bonded to the modifying material.
 33. The method of claim 30, whereinthe ELR material is bonded to the modifying material.
 34. The method ofclaim 28, wherein atoms on a face of the ELR material are bonded toatoms of the modifying material.
 35. The method of claim 34, wherein theface is parallel to an ab-plane of the ELR material.
 36. The method ofclaim 35, wherein the face is parallel to an a-plane of the ELRmaterial.
 37. The method of claim 35, wherein the face is parallel to ab-plane of the ELR material.
 38. The method of claim 30, wherein atomson a face of the ELR material are bonded to atoms of the modifyingmaterial.
 39. The method of claim 38, wherein the face is parallel to anab-plane of the ELR material.
 40. The method of claim 39, wherein theface is parallel to an a-plane of the ELR material.
 41. The method ofclaim 39, wherein the face is parallel to a b-plane of the ELR material.42. The method of claim 27, wherein the at least one aperture and theaperture each have a cross-section ranging in size from 0.200 nm to1.000 nm.
 43. The method of claim 27, wherein the ELR material is asuperconducting material.
 44. The method of claim 43, wherein the ELRmaterial is a mixed-valence copper-oxide perovskite material.
 45. Themethod of claim 43, wherein the ELR material is an iron pnictidematerial.
 46. The method of claim 43, wherein the ELR material ismagnesium diboride. 47-48. (canceled)